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decomposed into their base forms even by English speaking
crews. For example, a flight mode named “flight level
change” is abbreviated FLCH on a flight deck display, and is
pronounced “flitch” by native English speaking pilots.
Such abbreviations become lexical items in a professional
language of aviation and are associated directly with their
functional properties rather than with the meanings of the
words from which the abbreviation was derived. Non-native
English speakers give these terms phonetically more
comfortable pronunciations and then use them as they are
used by native English speakers.
Checklists
Some of the entries in the current generation of Electronic
Checklist (ECL) procedures require readers to use implicit
contextual cues to resolve semantic and syntactic ambiguities.
One Japanese airline has edited the ECL on their newest
airplanes to make the English easier for their crews to
understand. The Japanese language handles double negatives
and negative questions differently from English, and these
constructions, among others, have been found to be quite
problematic for Japanese speaking crews. English text can
also be read aloud in ways that make it phonetically more
congenial for non-native English speakers. We observed a
Japanese pilot who spoke to ATC with nearly unaccented
English, but when reading the ECL to his fellow pilot, he
pronounced the words using Japanese sounds. He adopted a
Japanese speaking rhythm and extended word final sounds,
adding vowels to words that end in consonants (e.g.,
“Arutitudooo,” “Checkriiisto,” and “…check erec
synoputicuuu,”). The fact that this pilot has demonstrated
the ability to speak English with almost no accent in the ATC
context indicates that he is engaging in recipient design at the
phonetic level when he is reading to his partner.
Figure 1: Written English is easier to understand than spoken
English.
Many Japanese find written English easier to understand than
spoken English3. Some airlines train their pilots to perform
procedures together with one pilot reading the procedure steps
while the other pilot executes the described actions. The
ECL is presented on a display in the center of the flight deck.
We observed many cases in revenue flight and in the
simulator in which both pilots read the ECL together. If the
checklist procedure is performed using a paper checklist, the
pilot reading the checklist leaned toward the other pilot and
3 This may be due in part to the Japanese education system’s
emphasis on English reading and writing skills over
speaking skills.
placed the paper checklist in the line of sight of the other
pilot. Both of these practices make the written representation
available in addition to the spoken representation (See Figure
1). Among other effects, this practice provides the second
pilot with a representation of the procedure that is less foreign
than the spoken representation4.
Even though the checklist procedures are presented and read
in English, additional discussions between pilots about the
meanings of checklist items are usually conducted in
Japanese.
Number Representations
Numbers representations are interesting for several reasons.
Most of the content of flight dispatch paperwork consists of
numbers. Japanese has its own native orthography for the
written representation of numbers. But the Arabic numeral
system has become an alternative orthography for number
representation in everyday Japanese life. Japanese people read
Arabic numeral fluently and conceive of the quantities in
Japanese terms (See Figure 2). This means that while a native
English speaker might see a dispatch flight log, for example,
as a document composed entirely in English, a Japanese pilot
may see the very same document as only a little bit English.
Flight dispatch documents include many numbers that must be
entered correctly into the flight management computer system.
Among these are so called “safety critical items” which must
be entered correctly, because a mistake with a “safety critical
item” may render the airplane difficult or impossible to
control after takeoff. The excerpt below from a final weight
and balance report issued by a Japanese airline shows that
special attention is given to the representation of the “safety
critical item” numbers (ZFW and MAC). In addition to
appearing in numeric form, the digits of the numbers,
including the decimal point in the case of MAC, are spelled
out in individual English words. These words will be read
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