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and spoken aloud while keying in the data. We have not
observed this spelling-out of number values at any monolingual
English airlines.
Figure 2: The representation of the “safety critical item”
numbers in a weight and balance report.
The Japanese language represents large numbers differently
from English. In Japanese, ten-thousand is denoted by “man,”
not “juu-sen (literally, ten-thousand).” So, for example,
twenty-two thousand would be formed as “ni-man ni-sen (two
ten-thousands and two thousands)” in Japanese. Japanese
pilots represent altitudes using Japanese composite format
4 This pattern of behavior is also observed in mono-lingual
English flight decks where it seems to facilitate the
establishment of common-ground understandings.
when referring to altitude in a briefing or in general
communication with a fellow pilot (See Table 1). They
represent altitudes in English, using global aviation
conventions, when communicating with ATC and when
setting the value of the altitude alert window. Similarly
when dealing with other large numbers, such as fuel
quantities, the pilots represent large numbers in Japanese
format when they consider the implications of a quantity, and
use English format to represent the same quantity when
transferring data from a written English representation to
keypad entry. In general, Japanese is used when the
meaning of the represented quantity is paramount and English
is used when the preservation of the form of the number is
paramount. The linguistic representation chosen thus
depends on the relation of the representation to other
representations in the ecology at that moment.
Non-normal Procedures
The constraints of the language ecology on the choice of
representation format are also apparent in the use of the Quick
Reference Handbook (QRH). Figure 3 is an excerpt from
the QRH for the Boeing 747-400 operated by AirFrance.
Figure 3: The QRH for the Boeing 747-400 operated by
AirFrance. (from [4])
The QRH is a ready-to-hand notebook containing written
procedures for dealing with non-normal conditions. Nonnormal
conditions that are detected by the airplane systems
are brought to the crew’s attention by a message that appears
on a central display panel. When a string of characters such
as “FIRE ENG 3” appears on the display, the crew must
locate the corresponding procedure in the QRH. As the figure
shows, the steps to perform when the message appears can be
translated into the native language of the pilot population (we
have seen similar documents in Japanese), but the strings of
characters that name the procedure cannot be translated,
because translation would destroy the correspondence
between the form of the message and the form of the
procedure name. Terms that refer to the exact text of flight
deck labels, such as the CUTOFF position for the fuel control
switch, are also not translated.
Annotation of Charts and Other Paperwork
Japanese pilots applied more annotations to their charts and
other paperwork than the pilots at any other airline we have
observed.
Figure 4 is a heavily annotated hand-drawn representation of a
complex instrument approach prepared by a young Japanese
first officer to be reviewed just prior to flying the approach.
This document is a sort of microcosm of the language ecology
of the Japanese flight deck. The annotations are a complex
mix of English and Japanese. Character strings that appear
in English on navigation charts or flight deck displays while
flying this approach are rendered in English. Required
callouts and expected communications with ATC that must be
produced in English while flying the approach also appear in
English on this document. Commentaries, interpretations,
techniques, and discussions of tricks and traps are represented
in Japanese.
Japanese pilots also annotate operational documents. In
training they annotate lesson plans and maneuver descriptions.
Some of this may be imported from the well-developed
Japanese culture of studying and test taking.
Figure 4: A heavily annotated hand-drawn representation of a
complex instrument approach.
The significance of the presence or absence of annotation is
complicated by the relations to other elements of the ecology.
Normally, pilots have responsibility for possessing and
maintaining their own collection of navigation charts. These
are carried in a “route manual” by each pilot in his or her
flight bag. In Oceania, our research team was initially
surprised by the fact that pilots on domestic routes never
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