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radically different from English in lexicon, syntactic structure,
phonology and orthography); this in spite of Japanese
education policies that stress English instruction.
ATC language practices are set by national policy and differ
by nation. In France, for example, French speaking pilots
speak to controllers in French. Controllers speak English to
non-French speaking crews flying in the same airspace. The
same pattern holds in Mexico and much of Latin America. In
these nations, foreign pilots can expect to receive ATC
services in English upon request, but those who do not speak
the national language are denied the situation awareness that
comes from monitoring communications between ATC and
other aircraft on the same frequency (party-line). All ATC
communications in Japan are conducted in English.
In spite of the differences in language used, there are common
schemata for clearances that hold across languages. ATC
language has a distinctive syntax and lexicon in every
language. A departure clearance, for example, always
contains the same set of key elements, regardless of the
language in which it is delivered.
International Governing Bodies
In an attempt to address perceived deficiencies in the ability
of non-native English speaking operators to integrate English
language representations into their aviation activities, the
International Civil Aviation Organization has proposed a new
set of standards for proficiency in a subset of English called
“aviation English.” [5] Improving aviation English
proficiency worldwide certainly seems to be a laudable goal,
but the implementation of an infrastructure for standardized
training, testing, and certification of English proficiency on a
global scale is a daunting task. Furthermore, it is not clear
how the effects of these policies will fit into existing language
ecologies.
Manufacturer and Airline Policies
As mentioned above, the major manufacturers (both US-based
Boeing and France-based Airbus) determine some central
aspects of the language ecology by their use of English for
airplane systems and supporting documentation. Flight deck
labels and display text mostly consist of abbreviations and
acronyms derived from English words and phrases. While
many airlines recognize the value of providing pilots written
documentation in their native language, this is often not done
because the translation of flight deck support documents costs
time and money. Some airlines based in non-English speaking
societies eventually translate some or all of these documents
into the native language of their pilot population. But this
tends not to happen immediately when the aircraft is
introduced into service. In poorer nations, it may not happen
at all. So, airplanes that are new to a non-English-speaking
context are likely to be flying with flight deck support
documentation that is not in the native language of the pilots.
Furthermore, as airplane systems become more complex, the
interfaces to the airplane are increasingly automated and
language-based [2]. For example, the latest generation of
airplanes is equipped with Electronic Checklists (ECL). At
present, the ECL is available only in English.
Patterns of Language Use
These exogenous institutional arrangements inject a variety of
forms of representation of flight relevant information into the
flight deck and require a variety of transformations of
representations inside the flight deck. They also shape the
tools and skills that pilots have available for performing the
required transformations.
Task demands include entering data from printed
representations to computer (preflight the Flight Management
Computer: FMC), reading back spoken clearances from ATC,
setting instrumentation from spoken representations of flight
parameters, reading or hearing procedure descriptions and
then executing the described procedure, checking the
accomplishment of procedures in written or spoken form, and
of course, understanding the meaning of any of these
representations in terms of their consequences for the larger
flight situation.
The interactions of these constraints produce a wide range of
patterns of language use. The three simplest patterns appear
to be the following
1. All aspects of flight conducted in first language (typically
this is the case for native English speakers flying an
English speaking context. This also occurs where all
supporting documents have been translated, Aeroméxico
domestic MD80 operations, for example. Flight deck
labels remain as abbreviations and acronyms derived
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