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methods used must be clear and defined enough to be easily replicated. This means
that unequivocal behaviour definitions are particularly important. It is also
important for a high level of intra-observer reliability. This ensures that the observer
is reliable from session to session.
Inter-observer reliability is tested by having at least two observers collect data
simultaneously. Testing intra-observer reliability requires video or audio records,
with the observer coding the same set of data at least twice. The duration of an
observer reliability session should be equivalent to the observation period. For fast
tempo observations, the reliability test should cover ½-1 hour of data collection,
while this should be increased to 2-3 hrs during slower tempo observations. The data
are then compared, and a percentage of agreement is calculated, using the following
formula: % Agreement = (Agreements/Agreements + Disagreements) x 100. 85% is
considered to be an acceptable level of agreement. As well as the crude percentage,
there are also statistical methods that take chance agreement into account (eg. Kappa
scores) (Lehner, 1979).
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4. Categories of C2 Behaviour
4.1 Existing Categories of Team Behaviour
Before conducting preliminary observations, it is important to examine the literature
to see if existing categories and/or taxonomies have been determined. As mentioned
in the Introduction, navy and aviation C2 teams have been extensively studied in the
U.S. This work has delineated numerous factors related to team performance, as well
as a taxonomy of battle command. Table 1 presents a summary of teamwork factors
that have emerged from previous research, and a description of the associated
observable behaviours.
Table 1. Teamwork dimensions and observable behaviours
Dimension Definition Observable Behaviours
Assertiveness The willingness to make
decisions and act on them,
to defend decisions, and to
admit ignorance and ask
questions.
• Ask clarifying questions
• Maintain position if challenged
• Make suggestions
• Offer opinion in decisions
Mission
Analysis/Decision
Making
The degree to which the
team uses sound
judgement, to select the
best course of action, based
on available information.
• Define tasks in terms of mission
requirements
• Identify short and long term plan
• Critique plan
• Gather information
• Cross-check information
• State contingencies/alternatives
• State consequences of actions
• State implications of unplanned
events
• Allocate and monitor resources
Adaptability/
Flexibility
The degree to which the
team is able to alter
plans/decisions in the face
of changing conditions.
• Alter course of action
• Step in and help others faced
with problem
• Redistribute workload
• Reorganise the team roles
• Monitor each other’s behaviour
Situation Awareness The degree to which the
team maintains an accurate
and predictive perception
of the external
environment.
• Identify problems
• Detect situations that require
corrective action.
• Provide updates of where team is
in relation to achieving goals
• Identify impediments to goal
attainment.
• Provide important information
prior to request
• Anticipate changes in the
situation
• Anticipate needs of other team
members
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Leadership The degree to which a team
member directs and
coordinates the activities of
other team members and
monitors team
performance. If there is
clear delineation of task
duties before task,
leadership is spread
throughout the crew and is
not limited to a formal
leader.
• Specify task to be assigned
• Ask for input in plans/decision
• Focus team attention on current
task
• Provide feedback to team
• Explain to others what is
required
• Listens to concerns
Communication The degree to which the
team clearly and accurately
sends and acknowledges
information, instructions,
or commands.
• Use standard terminology
• Acknowledge communication by
others
• Verify information
• Provide information when
requested
• Repeat vital information
4.2 Relationship with Performance
A wealth of research has demonstrated that these factors are correlated with
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