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continuous sampling).
3. Group or subgroup, one individual at a time: Duty Clerk and Duty Officer or
entire Operations Cell (most effective if used with instantaneous/scan sampling).
4. All occurrences of certain behaviours: This is equivalent to focusing on the total
group, while restricting attention to certain behaviours, such as communication.
5. Sequences of behaviour: Sequenced behaviours, such as those that occur during
interactions, or while performing complex tasks. Individual identities and rates
of occurrence may have to be sacrificed unless video or audio recorders are used.
6. Location: Focusing of attention on a particular location, such as the Operations
Cell, and recording what events occur there.
To avoid observer bias, the order in which focal subjects or locations are sampled
during an observation period needs to be randomised. Likewise, observation periods
need to be balanced.
3.10 Collecting the Data
There are several ways of recording data, and they vary in the reliability, ease of use,
cost and time required for transcription and analyses. A major problem with audio
and videotape is that they usually require at least three times as much time to
transcribe as to record. However, if rapid, unpredictable behaviours are occurring,
recording them is the most successful way of ensuring that data are captured. One
way to make transcription from audio or video less time-consuming is for the
observer to narrate during the observations (as long as it is not disruptive to the
subjects). This saves re-coding behaviour, and allows a 1:1 transcription ratio. Small
laptop computers are also useful, and can be used with commercial data collection
products such as The Noldus Observer Software. However, they can limit sampling
to single method. As was mentioned, the most common method with experienced
observers is for mixed-sampling methods to be used. In addition, transporting
computer equipment around for data collection in a field setting can be cumbersome
and extremely impractical. In a military setting, when movement around the field is
reliant on Army transport, it is usually impossible to carry more than the basic
necessities. Consequently, in most observation data collection situations, the “oldfashioned
” pencil and paper method is usually the most appropriate.
3.10.1 Codes
Codes are useful for recording behaviour in many sampling scenes. Depending on
how many behaviours are going to be scored, one may simply code each behaviour
with one to three letters or numbers. If there are many behaviours, higher reliability
will occur if mnemonic abbreviations are used (eg. AP = Approach). In addition, a
dimensionalised coding system can be used where the first letter denotes a general
category, while the second a specific behaviour. A teamwork example is “CR =
Communicate-Request”. Codes can also be used to identify individuals and locations
and to discriminate between actors and recipients.
DSTO-TR-1034
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3.10.2 Data Sheets
As was mentioned, for many field projects, a data sheet is a simple and inexpensive
way of recording data. The data sheet will reflect sampling methods, information to
be recorded, number of subjects, duration of sample period and method of analysis
(hand or computer). Each sheet should include project title, date, time, weather (if
applicable), observer, subject/s, phase and/or condition, and trial number (if
applicable). There should also be a space for comments (Ad Libitum type). It is not
unusual for several data sheets to be trialed before one is chosen for formal data
collection. Issues to be considered include methodology, behaviour categories,
sample rate, and the organisation on paper of the behaviours in a way that facilitates
data collection. Categories can be organised in terms of their tempo, functional
organisation, or can simply be alphabetical. Figures 1 to 6 provide example data
sheets for the various sampling methods.
In general, behaviours are recorded in the columns, while time is recorded in rows.
Behaviours are recorded by making a check mark/tick in the appropriate cell, or
inserting the code. If the codes have to be written, the box needs to be large enough
to accommodate the chosen symbols. This method works for continuous and scan
sampling. To record sequences of behaviour, codes for actors, behaviours and
recipients can be written in the order in which they occur (Figure 6). This can be done
within a time interval or at the onset of the behaviour sequence. It is also possible to
use a matrix. For example, individuals or behaviours can be located across the top of
the form, while locations or behaviours can be presented down the side. This
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