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say.27
“Even if the paper charts are removed
from the flight deck, most pilots
are so familiar with using paper
charts that it will take some time for
them to become as comfortable with
electronic charts as they are with paper
charts,” they say.
They say that during training, pilots
may require instruction on how to configure
individual electronic charts and
use them, especially if the electronic
charts do not resemble the paper charts
to which pilots are accustomed. The
researchers recommend that the same
symbology, general layout and information
groupings used on paper charts
should be used on electronic charts.
“Pilots are highly familiar with
the information and visual structure
of paper charts,” the researchers say.
“These users have developed highly
efficient and individualized strategies
for retrieving chart information
for reference and planning purposes.
These strategies are so well ingrained
that pilots can have difficulty switching
between paper charts from different
sources, which may vary relatively
little in format. ... Users will need to
spend time developing and learning
new strategies for using electronic
charts. If the electronic chart is created
based on a totally new structure,
developing these strategies may be
challenging at first, and the challenges
may last for a long time. Also, confusion
and errors are more likely if pilots
do not find the electronic information
where they expect it to be, based on
their experience with paper charts.”28
In addition to training programs,
an operator that is introducing EFBs
as part of a transition to a paperless
cockpit must have a reliable alternate
method of providing required information
to flight crewmembers during the
transition.
“During this period, an EFB system
must demonstrate that it produces records
that are as available and reliable
as those provided by the current paper
information system,” says AC 120-
76A.
To ease the transition, several actions
are recommended, including
“system design, separate and backup
power sources, redundant EFB applications
hosted on different EFB platforms,
paper products carried by selected
crewmembers, complete set of
sealed paper backups in cockpit and/or
procedural means,” AC 120-76A says.
A backup plan in the event of an
EFB failure during the transition period
could include carrying paper documents
in the airplane for a specified
time period, using a printer to print
data required for the flight or using an
airplane fax machine to receive equivalent
paper documents if required, the
AC says.
EFBs Foster Human Factors
Research
Human factors researchers at the
PAPERLESS COCKPIT
Continued from page 33
AVIONICS NEWS • SEPTEMBER 2005 35
U.S. Department of Transportation
Volpe National Transportation Systems
Center have conducted several studies
of EFBs, which they say present “a
host of human factors challenges.”29
In a 2000 report, which contained a
list of human factors topics for consideration
by EFB designers and evaluators,
the specialists discussed some of
those challenges:30
Using an EFB requires effort. There
may be effort involved in locating and
orienting the display for use and there
is effort in looking at the display, processing
the information and making
any necessary entries. Data entry can
produce particularly long head-down
times and high workload. Visual scanning
of the EFB (without data entry)
does not require as much effort, but it
is still an additional task for the pilot.
The additional workload required to
use an EFB may distract the pilot from
higher-priority time-critical tasks during
critical phases of flight.
In a 2003 report, they said that, although
EFBs help pilots to conduct
flights more safely and more efficiently,
the devices “could have negative
side effects if not implemented appropriately.”
31
As an example, they again cited the
potential distraction presented by an
EFB:
During high workload situations,
such as takeoff and landing, entering
data on the EFB may distract the crew
from essential functions, such as visual
scanning for air traffic out the window
or scanning of aircraft instruments.
Data entry tasks should be avoided
during these phases of flight. If data
entry is required, it should be limited
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