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decision. The US Navy, for
example, trains pilots to stop in
emergencies, and reset the clock
on the instrument panel, which
forces them to relax, or at least,
not to panic.
· Knowledge-based learning relies on
previous experience (you could
look on "common sense" as the
sum total of experience). It 's
the sort of stuff you apply if you
need to think things through, or
maybe work on the why so the
how becomes apparent.
Inexperienced pilots are more
likely to make knowledge-based
mistakes, a factor that is more
apparent when they are forced
into knowledge-based
behaviour.
Memory
Most psychologists (but by no
means all!) agree that there are three
types of memory:
· Instinct, what Jung called "race
memory", gives an immediate
(i.e. gut reaction) response to a
stimulus. It's like something you
are hard-wired for. Some
psychologists call this sensory
memory, as it provides a raw
reaction to sensory input.
· Short Term, or Working, Memory,
which is for data that is used
and forgotten almost instantly
(actually, nothing is ever
forgotten, as any psychologist
will tell you, but the point is that
Short Term Memory is for "on
the spot" work, such as fuel
Human Factors 235
calculations or ATC clearances).
It can only cope with about 7
items at a time, unless some
tricks are used, such as grouping
or association (chunking). Data in
short term memory typically
lasts about 10-20 seconds. It is
affected by distraction, and is
probably what Einstein was
referring to when he thought
that as soon as one fact was
absorbed, one was discarded.
Because its capacity is so
limited, items must clamour for
attention, which may be based
on emotion, personal interest or
the unusual.
Just to prove that short term
memory is really limited in its
holding capacity, read out the
following 15 words to a few
people, taking one or two
seconds per word, and get them
to write down as may of them
afterwards as they can
remember. Most people will get
7 of them, and some (around
55%) will include sleep, even
though it wasn't there in the
first place, proof that we
sometimes hear what we want
to hear, and that eyewitness
testimony can be suspect, which
is why the test was developed in
the first place (by Washington
University in St Louis). The
words are: bed, rest, awake,
tired, dream, snooze, wake,
blanket, doze, slumber, snore,
nap, peace, yawn, drowsy.
· Long Term Memory, where all our
basic knowledge (e.g. memories
of childhood, training, etc.) is
kept – you might liken it to the
unconscious. Where training is
concerned, many processes can
be carried out automatically,
with little thinking. Repetition is
used to get information into it.
It is subdivided into semantic
memory, based on things learnt
through rule-based learning (see
above), and episodic, from
specific events, for knowledgebased
behaviour. Simple
repetition (without meaning) is
not effective for transferring
items from short-term to longterm
memory – there must be
some sort of link, or emotion.
There are also two types of thinking:
· Left brain, or logical, involving
verbal and mathematical
methods. It typically uses simple
deduction; for example, define
what the problem is NOT until
you can decide what the
problem must be.
· Right Brain—conceptual. The
artist type.
Responses
Following a decision, based on a
stimulus, there is a response.
However, a response due to
excessive pressure is more likely to
be based on insufficient data and be
wrong than a more considered one,
assuming time permits. Don't change
a plan unnecessarily; a previously
made one based on sound thinking
is more likely to work than one
cooked up on the spur of the
moment, provided, of course that
the situation is the same or similar. A
correct, rather than rapid reaction is
appropriate.
Response times will vary according
to the complexity of the problem, or
the element of expectation and
236 JAR Private Pilot Studies
hence preparedness (we are trained
to expect engine failures, for
example, but not locked controls, so
the reaction time to the former will
be less). Pushing a button as a
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