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statement “flight level 80 clear”. In the resulting confusion, two aircraft passed
within 400m of each other at the same level.
I have had the good fortune to hear a colleague prod a pilot for a readback of an
assigned altitude by requesting, with voice intonation, “and level?”, to which the pilot
replied “affirm”, meaning he was flying level!
6.18 Speed of Delivery and Pauses
During peak traffic periods, controllers in some positions may be talking constantly.
Difficult as it may be, if controllers pause between transmissions to different aircraft,
the amount of irrelevant information received by pilots is reduced. This increases the
pilot’s chance of remembering and reduces requests for reiteration.
Cushing (1994) refers to the danger of the ‘delayed dangling phrase’, an add-on
during a transmission to a sentence that sounds, tonally and in contents, to have
already terminated. Such afterthoughts risk being over transmitted and important
information missed, as was the case in the Boeing 707 crash in the Azores in 1989
(Gero, 1996).
The rapid speed at which controllers deliver instructions is probably the most
common miscommunication complaint received from pilots.
6.19 Vigilance
Maintaining vigilance for critical but infrequent events, such as a pilot reading back
an incorrect level, is an important part of air traffic control. Traditionally,
maintaining vigilance has been thought of as undemanding and boring but recent
research shows that it imposes considerable mental effort and that this does not
simply arise from the controller’s efforts to overcome tedium (National Research
Council, 1997). Issues of vigilance involve many types of human attributes such as
boredom, stress, tiredness, personal problems and so on.
46
7. Conclusion
Errors in communications and co-ordination are causal factors in failures within the
air traffic system. The flexibility of the system depends upon the highly dynamic
information passed by voice between controllers and pilots. Without current,
unambiguous information, neither pilots nor controllers can make appropriate
decisions. Miscommunication, therefore, has obvious safety implications. The
difficulty is not so much in routine situations but when situations become non-routine.
Unfortunately, because of their differing perspectives of the system, the parties may
not be aware that they have a miscommunication problem. This problem is greater
for those whose English is poor but, as Morrow (1997:28) observes, “there is a hidden
threat from those who take their fluency for granted”.
To a large extent, the norm for verbal communications in the Australian air traffic
system has been established by the day-to-day example of air traffic controllers.
Their small numbers, centrally controlled training and quality assurance structure,
uniform culture and lack of regional accents have made it relatively straightforward to
maintain high standards. This consistency has then been a model for the rest of the
industry where there is greater variability in pilot training, experience and knowledge.
At the time of researching this paper, however, the air traffic control structure is about
to undergo fundamental changes. It seems likely that much of it will be privatised or
disbanded. The large training commitment of the past decade is being wound down
as Airservices Australia implements TAAATS (the Australian Advanced Air Traffic
System). While enroute controller training is still conducted in-house, training for
tower and approach controllers is being out-sourced. This fragmentation of the
training effort can only make communications standardisation more problematic. The
likely proliferation of unicom services, whereby certain aspects of airfield conditions
and traffic information will be provided by local operators, is likely to introduce an
element casualness and familiarity into radio communications which will gradually
affect all air traffic services.
Recently, there have been calls for greater research into miscommunications and the
means by which current research can be integrated with teaching and learning
strategies (e.g. Henley, Wiggins and Anderson, 1997; Airservices Australia, 1997b).
The first step is to begin applying what is already known. There is a need to heighten
awareness amongst pilots and controllers of the nuances of language. As part of their
training, they should be provided with a deeper insight into the structures of language
and the way that phrases and words can be misinterpreted. They need to be mindful
of how a transmission sounds to its recipient—a successful message must be sent,
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