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language when different dialects are in use. Most importantly, it can arise when pilots
or controllers switch between the common usage of a word and its more defined
aviation equivalent. Cushing (1995) provides the communications transcript of the
1981 John Wayne Orange County Boeing 737 crash where the controller and pilots
used the word ‘hold’ to mean ‘stop’ (its aviation meaning) and ‘to continue’ (as in
‘hold your course’ in ordinary English). Just what ‘hold’ meant in each transmission
in which it was used led to confusion, a wheels up landing, 34 injuries, and an aircraft
destroyed by post-impact fire.
6.5 Different Voices
ICAO (1993:16) reported that:
Voices become familiar, and it can confuse the pilot if a different controller from the
one expected replies, and confuse the controller if parts of a single dialogue with the
crew of an aircraft are with different crew members.
A controller may be unsure that the correct aircraft has received the instructions,
especially since pilots sometimes mix up their callsigns if they have flown several
different aircraft recently.
6.6 Emergencies
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Language skills diminish as tension rises during in-flight emergencies. Tasks take
priority which means that controllers may have to concentrate in order to deliver
slow, clear speech, especially those for whom English is not their first language.
Distraction with an emergency may cause slips with communications with other
aircraft (Porter, 1981).
6.7 Enunciation
Poor enunciation by a sender leads to doubt by the receiver as to what has been heard.
Many controllers are not aware that they have inadequate enunciation and that it is the
reason for unacknowledged instructions or requests for message repeats. Some
people find certain words innately difficult to enunciate, particularly when they are
busy, so, for example, ‘Juliet Juliet Tango’ becomes ‘Jew Jew Tango’ and a ‘Bulls 2
arrival’ becomes ‘Buws 2 arrival’.
6.8 Expectation
We have discussed how we use expectation and context to hear and understand what
has been said. Messages are misunderstood because the listener incorrectly infers the
intended message. Expectation errors are a particularly insidious form of
miscommunication because readbacks may indicate that the message has been
received correctly when, in fact, it has not. Byron (1997) cites an example where an
aircraft was cleared to climb to FL310 and at FL260 the controller asked about the
aircraft’s speed. The pilot answered “315 knots”. The controller said “maintain 280”,
to which the pilot responded “280 knots”. The pilot slowed the aircraft to 280 knots
and continued climbing. As it climbed through FL295, the controller said that the
aircraft was cleared only to FL280. In this case, the controller had set a context of
airspeed and failed to indicate, due to his poor phraseologies (i.e. not saying
“maintain flight level 280”), that the subject had changed to altitude, nor did he
vigilantly monitor the readback and detect the pilot say “knots”.
6.9 Headsets
Ill-fitting headsets cause many miscommunications problems because the
microphones tend to drop away from the mouth. Microphone clipping occurs when a
controller (or pilot) fails to ensure that the microphone switch is activated prior to
speaking, or deselects it prior to finishing speaking. Since the aircraft’s callsign is the
first part of a control message, dropping the first letter from the callsign may mean,
for example, ‘Echo Alpha Kilo’ accepts a message meant for ‘Tango Alpha Kilo’. In
order to detect this, recent changes require pilots to place their callsign last when
acknowledging an instruction (i.e. “six thousand, Tango Alpha Kilo”). Problems with
clipping of ‘affirmative’ and ‘negative’ led to the former being changed to ‘affirm’.
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Microphone clipping is most likely to occur when controllers and pilots are busy or
training.
6.10 Homonyms and Homophony
The Flying Tigers Boeing B747 crash at Kuala Lumpur in 1989 demonstrates the
misinterpretation which may occur with the homonyms ‘to, too and two’. Visibility
was only two miles in fog as the aircraft was issued the clearance, “Descend to two
seven zero zero” (two thousand seven hundred feet) to which the pilot responded,
“Roger, cleared to two thousand seven hundred. We’re out of forty-five”. The next
clearance was, “Descend two four zero zero” (two thousand four hundred feet) to
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