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which the pilot replied, “OK, four zero zero” (four hundred feet). The four crew, who
did not heed the ground proximity warning alarm, were killed when the freighter
crashed 8 miles from the runway (Waldock, 1994). Had the controller not dropped
the ‘to’ in the second instruction and instructed “descend to two four zero zero”, or
detected the incorrect readback, the accident would have been avoided. Controllers
often encounter this problem with these homonyms and appear to use two different
techniques to overcome it. One is to pronounce ‘to’ as ‘tah’; the other is to emphasise
‘to’ as in “descend to two seven zero zero”.
Homophony is a “confusion-inducing phenomena” due to different words or phrases
sounding exactly or nearly alike (Cushing, 1994:12). Examples are ‘left’ and ‘west’,
and aerodromes such as ‘Morawa’ and ‘Moora’, ‘Cowra’ and ‘Corowa”. We saw
earlier that in the Canadian Pacific accident in Sydney, ‘take taxiway right’ was heard
as ‘you can backtrack if you like’.
6.11 Noise
Noise causes message distortion and may be due to cockpit or ATC centre
background noise, equipment noise, environmental noise (atmospheric static),
substandard headsets or poor microphone technique.
6.12 Not Hearing
The problem of visual dominance phenomenon was discussed earlier. Not hearing
important information is a clear sign that the controller involved is overtaxed (Ott,
1998). Such strain affects the hearing first before affecting the ability to think clearly
and motor/manual dexterity.
6.13 Number Problems
44
Errors with numbers are ubiquitous, whether it be with callsigns, levels, heading,
speeds, tracks, winds, latitudes and longitudes, and so on. It seems to occur most
often when controllers give headings and distances in conjunction with altitudes
(Grayson and Billings, 1981). Numbers are likely to be transposed and the error may
not be picked up in the pilot readback. Indeed, the pilot may read it back correctly but
enter the transposed sequence into the aircraft’s flight management system.
6.14 Open microphones
Stuck microphones tend to occur in aircraft when handset switches unknowingly get
jammed. This blankets out transmissions by other aircraft and the controller. The
controller relies on other pilots recognising the situation and returning to their
previous or another frequency for instructions. This situation is obviously dangerous
if aircraft are in conflict with each other and require separation, but it also adds
workload to adjacent controllers relaying instructions for the affected sector (Porter,
1981).
6.15 Readback Error
Readback of pertinent parts of a controller’s instructions does not guarantee that the
readback message has been accurately received. Too often, confirmation is given of
an incorrect readback. The Aviation Safety Reporting System (USA) has labelled this
phenomenon hearback and cited four major causes (Hawkins, 1993:167):
• similar aircraft callsigns resulting in confusion in transmission or reception;
• only one pilot on board working and monitoring the frequency;
• numerical errors, such as confusing ‘one zero thousand’ with ‘one one thousand’;
• expectancy—hearing what one expects to hear.
6.16 Similarity of SIDs, STARs and Waypoints
The similarity of names for standard instrument departures or arrivals may cause
confusion and mistakes. Morrow (1997) cites two transitions ‘Wave 1’ and Wave 2’
and two SIDs ‘Dorval 5’ and ‘Dorval 6’—these are not unambiguous nor errortolerant
because they are too similar. A pilot may mistakenly fly the wrong one.
Waypoint similarity can cause confusion. ROTAP and RONSA are similar distances
from Perth to the north-east and -west respectively, as are POKIP and POMOT. A
busy controller can mentally reverse the position of the two and develop a separation
plan based on the incorrect route.
6.17 Speech Acts
45
Complexity is introduced into language resulting from the variety of functions—
speech acts—that any sentence can represent, such as statement, question, request,
and so on. As we discussed earlier, subtle differences in intonation and placement of
pauses affects the way we interpret words. But when we are distracted, stressed or
careless, these verbal ‘keys’ may be omitted or displaced, resulting in
miscommunications. Hawkins (1993:169) provides an example of a near-miss at
Stuttgart in 1977 when a query of “flight level 80 clear?” was interpreted as a
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