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speed of at least 20%.
VA Manoeuvring speed. The
maximum speed you can
make abrupt, full scale
deflections of the controls
without damage (about twice
VS). Not always the best speed
for entering turbulence (see
below). Valid only at gross
weight. A 20% decrease in
Speed Meaning
weight. A 20% decrease in
weight needs a 10% reduction
in manoeuvring speed.
VF Flap Speed
VFE Max speed flaps extended
VFO Max flap operating speed
VH Max level speed at max
continuous power.
VLE Max speed, gear extended
VLO Max gear operating speed
VLOF Lift off speed
VMCA Minimum Control Speed, for
control in the air, with critical
engine out and the other at
takeoff thrust.
VS Stall speed, or min steady
controllable speed in flight.
VSL As above, for a specific
configuration
VSI Stall speed, clean, power off
V2 Takeoff Safety Speed, or
minimum safe flying speed if
you lose an engine after
takeoff, to be achieved before
screen height (35'). Must be at
least 20% more than stall
speed and 10% above VMC.
Weight is the main factor.
Should be calculated for each
landing for go-arounds.
VSO Stall Speed in landing config.
VX Best angle of climb
VY Best rate of climb
VYSE Best s/e rate of climb
Charts
These may look complicated, but
once you've figured out the way to
enter a performance chart, it
becomes considerably easier. For
exam purposes, the best tip is to
read the small print around the
graph itself, as this is where you will
find the conditions on which the
chart is based, such as "generator
off", or "ant-icing on". Excellent
168 Canadian Private Pilot Studies
examples are in the Transport
Canada Study Guides.
Height/Velocity Curve
Otherwise known as the Dead Man's
Curve, this is a chart for helicopters
that compares speeds against heights
to give you an idea of where not to
be if you want to make a successful
recovery from an engine failure, that
is, you don't want to be at high
altitudes with low speeds, or low
ones with high speeds, so the best
place to be is in the gap between the
shaded areas:
In other words, the graph shows
combinations of speed and height
that the average pilot would find it
impossible to make a safe emergency
landing from. To give the average
pilot more of a chance, a one-second
delay is factored in for minimum
skill levels.
A couple of points to note first of
all: one is that you should check to
see if the chart is in the Limitations or
Performance section of the Flight
Manual. If it's in the latter, its
requirements are recommended, not
mandatory. In some circumstances,
it is more dangerous to try to avoid
the curve, especially if you might
only be in it for a few seconds (as
when getting out of a confined area,
for example).
Anyhow, the vertical shaded area in
the diagram above is called the low
speed section, which is actually split in
two parts at the knee of the curve,
although it's never shown (the knee
is the furthest point at which the
curve extends). The lower portion is
for takeoff power (no intervention),
and the upper portion is for level
flight (cruise power, hand not
necessarily near the collective, so one
second allowed for intervention
time), and the whole area will
expand with Density Altitude. On
approach, you have your hands on
the controls and are using less than
cruise power, so the same figures
don't work.
The other shaded area is called the
high speed section, and the clear area
between them is the takeoff corridor.
Takeoffs and performance
calculations should definitely take
account of the curve, which is
constructed at maximum weight,
with no wind at a density altitude of
at least 7,000 feet. Those of lesser
quality must be verified (that is,
flown) by the relevant Authority.
A Question
1. If you plan to fly for an hour and
a half, and your machine uses 10
gals/hr, and you must land with 10
gals on board, what is your
minimum fuel before takeoff?
An Answer
1. 25 gals.
Flight Operations
Fuelling
Jet and piston fuels mix differently
with contaminants (particularly
water), which is due to variations in
their specific gravities and
temperature. The specific gravity of
water, for example, is so close to
Avtur that it can take up to 4 hours
for it to settle out, whereas the same
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