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events?”
3.2 The above are cognitive processes, undertaken by each participant, but the group dynamics of
the session are also important in determining its success.
The creative process — identifying what could go wrong
3.3 Creative thinking is necessary to ensure that the identification of potential failures and the potential
resulting hazards is as comprehensive as possible. It is important to encourage participants to think widely
and imaginatively about the subject, initially without analysis or criticism.
3.4 Typically, this is achieved through a process of structured brainstorming. The structure should both
ensure completeness and encourage (not constrain) wide-ranging thinking about the system.
Judgemental thinking — classifying risks and setting safety objectives
3.5 The aim of this part of the assessment session is to elicit subjective judgements in such a way as
to make the best use of people’s knowledge and experience, and to minimize — or at least reveal — any
biases or uncertainties.
3.6 Where the functions and hazards are complex and closely interlinked, session designers should
consider running the judgemental part of the session some time after the creative part in order to give time
to collate the results into a concise form. If this is not possible, the session leaders should make sure that
they have an opportunity (during a break, for example) to do some preliminary collation of the findings.
Group dynamics
3.7 The following statements apply to both the creative and the judgemental aspects of the session:
a) Understanding of the process and motivation for attendance. It is important that participants
have a common purpose.
Chapter 13. Safety Assessments
Appendix 1 13-APP 1-3
b) Group size. The size of the group is principally determined by the areas of expertise required.
However, groups of more than ten can be very difficult to control.
c) Dominance and reticence. Some individuals may dominate the conversation; others may be
reticent, especially about dissenting from a perceived consensus view.
d) Defensiveness. Participants closely involved with the development of a system or its equivalent
may find it hard to admit that things could go wrong.
e) Feedback. Giving positive feedback during the session is important. All contributions should be
seen to be valuable.
f) Confidentiality. Where representatives from different organizations are present, the facilitator
should be aware of possible issues that may affect what participants feel able to say.
____________________
14-1
Chapter 14
SAFETY AUDITING
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Safety audits are one of the principal methods for fulfilling the safety performance monitoring functions
outlined in Chapter 10. They are a core activity of any safety management system (SMS). Safety audits may
be performed by an external audit authority, such as the State regulatory authority, or they may be carried
out internally as part of an SMS. Regulatory audits are discussed briefly in Chapter 10. This chapter focuses
on the internal safety auditing programme.
14.2 SAFETY AUDITS
14.2.1 Safety audits are used to ensure that:
a) the structure of the SMS is sound in terms of appropriate levels of staff; compliance with approved
procedures and instructions; and a satisfactory level of competency and training to operate
equipment and facilities and to maintain their levels of performance;
b) equipment performance is adequate for the safety levels of the service provided;
c) effective arrangements exist for promoting safety, monitoring safety performance and processing
safety issues; and
d) adequate arrangements exist to handle foreseeable emergencies.
14.2.2 Ideally, safety audits should be conducted regularly, following a cycle that ensures each
functional area is audited as a part of the organization’s plan for evaluating overall safety performance.1
Safety audits should entail a periodic detailed review of the safety performance, procedures and practices of
each unit or section with safety responsibilities. Thus, in addition to an organization-wide audit plan, a
detailed audit plan should be prepared for each individual unit/section.
14.2.3 Safety audits should go beyond just checking compliance with regulatory requirements and
conformance with the organization’s standards. The audit team should assess whether the procedures in
use are appropriate and whether there are any work practices that could have unforeseen safety
consequences.
14.2.4 The scope of a safety audit may vary from an overview of all activities of the unit or section, to a
specific activity. The criteria against which the audit will be conducted should be specified in advance.2
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Safety Management Manual (SMM) 安全管理手册(92)
