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constraints, which in turn affect the overall corporate environment. Included here are such factors as
the adequacy of physical facilities and supporting infrastructure, the local financial situation, and
regulatory effectiveness. Just as the immediate work environment may create pressures to take
short cuts, inadequate infrastructure support may also compromise the quality of decision-making.
4.5.18 Care needs to be taken in order that problems (hazards) do not “fall through the cracks” at the
interfaces. For the most part, the rough edges of these interfaces can be managed, for example:
a) The designer can ensure the performance reliability of the equipment under specified operating
conditions.
b) During the certification process, the regulatory authority can define the conditions under which the
equipment may be used.
c) The organization’s management can specify SOPs and provide initial and recurrent training for the
safe use of the equipment.
d) Individual equipment operators can ensure their familiarity and confidence in using the equipment
safely under all required operating conditions.
Cultural factors3
4.5.19 Culture influences the values, beliefs and behaviours that we share with the other members of
our various social groups. Culture serves to bind us together as members of groups and to provide clues as
to how to behave in both normal and unusual situations. Some people see culture as the “collective
programming of the mind”. Culture is the complex, social dynamic that sets the rules of the game, or the
3. Adapted from the Human Factors Guidelines for Safety Audits Manual (Doc 9806).
4-12 Safety Management Manual (SMM)
framework for all our interpersonal interactions. It is the sum total of the way people conduct their affairs in a
particular social milieu. Culture provides a context in which things happen. For safety management,
understanding this context called culture is an important determinant of human performance and its
limitations.
4.5.20 The Western world’s approach to management is often based on an emotionally detached
rationality, which is considered to be “scientifically” based. It assumes that human cultures in the workplace
resemble the laws of physics and engineering, which are universal in application. This assumption reflects a
Western cultural bias.
4.5.21 Aviation safety must transcend national boundaries, including all the cultures therein. On a
global scale, the aviation industry has achieved a remarkable level of standardization across aircraft types,
countries and peoples. Nevertheless, it is not difficult to detect differences in how people respond in similar
situations. As people in the industry interact (the Liveware-Liveware (L-L) interface), their transactions are
affected by the differences in their cultural backgrounds. Different cultures have different ways of dealing
with common problems.
4.5.22 Organizations are not immune to cultural considerations. Organizational behaviour is subject to
these influences at every level. The following three levels of culture have relevance to safety management
initiatives:
a) National culture recognizes and identifies the national characteristics and value systems of
particular nations. People of different nationalities differ, for example, in their response to authority,
how they deal with uncertainty and ambiguity, and how they express their individuality. They are not
all attuned to the collective needs of the group (team or organization) in the same way. In collectivist
cultures, there is acceptance of unequal status and deference to leaders. Such factors may affect
the willingness of individuals to question decisions or actions — an important consideration in CRM.
Work assignments that mix national cultures may also affect team performance by creating
misunderstandings.
b) Professional culture recognizes and identifies the behaviour and characteristics of particular
professional groups (e.g. the typical behaviour of pilots vis-à-vis that of ATCOs or AMEs). Through
personnel selection, education and training, on-the-job experience, etc., professionals (e.g. doctors,
lawyers, pilots and ATCOs) tend to adopt the value system of, and develop behaviour patterns
consistent with, their peers; they learn to “walk and talk” alike. They generally share a pride in their
profession and are motivated to excel in it. On the other hand, they frequently have a sense of
personal invulnerability, e.g. they feel that their performance is not affected by personal problems
and that they do not make errors in situations of high stress.
c) Organizational culture recognizes and identifies the behaviour and values of particular
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Safety Management Manual (SMM) 安全管理手册(30)
