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well as individual EFB applications. Pilot
profi ciency should be evaluated through
line checks and recurrent/continuing
training, the report says.
Paper vs. Electronic:
Differences Create
Opportunities for Errors
For at least the next few years, as EFBs
are added to fl ight decks, paper charts
probably also will remain at hand, the human
factors researchers say.27
“Even if the paper charts are removed
from the fl ight deck, most pilots are so
familiar with using paper charts that it
will take some time for them to become
as comfortable with electronic charts as
they are with paper charts,” they say.
They say that during training, pilots may
require instruction on how to confi gure
individual electronic charts and use them,
especially if the electronic charts do not
resemble the paper charts to which pilots
are accustomed. The researchers recommend
that the same symbology, general
layout and information groupings used
on paper charts should be used on electronic
charts.
“Pilots are highly familiar with the information
and visual structure of paper
charts,” the researchers say. “These users
have developed highly effi cient and
individualized strategies for retrieving
chart information for reference and
planning purposes. These strategies are
so well ingrained that pilots can have
difficulty switching between paper
charts from different sources, which
may vary relatively little in format. …
Users will need to spend time developing
and learning new strategies for using
electronic charts. If the electronic chart
is created based on a totally new structure,
developing these strategies may be
challenging at fi rst, and the challenges
may last for a long time. Also, confusion
and errors are more likely if pilots
do not fi nd the electronic information
where they expect it to be, based on their
experience with paper charts.”28
In addition to training programs, an
operator that is introducing EFBs
as part of a transition to a paperless
cockpit must have a reliable alternate
method of providing required information
to flight crewmembers during the
transition.
“During this period, an EFB system must
demonstrate that it produces records that
are as available and reliable as those provided
by the current paper information
system,” says AC 120-76A.
To ease the transition, several actions are
recommended, including “system design,
separate and backup power sources,
redundant EFB applications hosted on
different EFB platforms, paper products
carried by selected crewmembers,
complete set of sealed paper backups in
cockpit and/or procedural means,” AC
120-76A says.
A backup plan in the event of an EFB
failure during the transition period
could include carrying paper documents
in the airplane for a specified
time period, using a printer to print
data required for the flight or using an
airplane fax machine to receive equivalent
paper documents if required, the
AC says.
EFBs Foster Human
Factors Research
Human factors researchers at the
U.S. Department of Transportation
Volpe National Transportation Systems
Center have conducted several studies of
EFBs, which they say present “a host of
human factors challenges.”29
In a 2000 report, which contained a list
of human factors topics for consideration
by EFB designers and evaluators,
the specialists discussed some of those
challenges:30
8 FLIGHT SAFETY FOUNDATION • FLIGHT SAFETY DIGEST • JUNE 2005
‘ P A P E R L E S S C O C K P I T ’ P R O M I S E S A D V A N C E S
Using an EFB requires effort. There
may be effort involved in locating
and orienting the display for use
and there is effort in looking at the
display, processing the information
and making any necessary entries.
Data entry can produce particularly
long head-down times and high
workload. Visual scanning of the
EFB (without data entry) does not
require as much effort, but it is still
an additional task for the pilot. The
additional workload required to use
an EFB may distract the pilot from
higher-priority time-critical tasks
during critical phases of fl ight.
In a 2003 report, they said that, although
EFBs help pilots to conduct fl ights more
safely and more effi ciently, the devices
“could have negative side effects if not
implemented appropriately.”31
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