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previous example, the criteria may include that navigation
from point A to point B be accomplished within 5 minutes
of the preplanned flight time and that en route altitude be
maintained within 200 feet. The revised performance-based
objective may now read, “Using a sectional chart and a flight
computer, plan a flight and fly from point A to point B in a
Cessna 172. Arrival at point B should be within 5 minutes of
planned arrival time and cruise altitude should be maintained
within 200 feet during the en route phase of the flight.” The
alert reader has already noted that the conditions and criteria
changed slightly during the development of these objectives,
and that is exactly the way it will occur. Conditions and
criteria should be refined as necessary. As noted earlier, a
PTS already has many of the elements needed to formulate
performance-based objectives. In most cases, the objective is
listed along with sufficient conditions to describe the scope of
the objective. The PTS also has specific criteria or standards
upon which to grade performance; however, the criteria may
not always be specific enough for a particular lesson. An
instructor should write performance-based objectives to fit
the desired outcome of the lesson. The objective formulated
in the last few paragraphs, for instance, is a well-defined
lesson objective from the task, Pilotage and Dead Reckoning,
in the Private Pilot PTS.
The Importance of the PTS in Aviation Training
Curricula
PTS hold an important position in aviation training
curricula because they supply the instructor with specific
performance objectives based on the standards that must
be met for the issuance of a particular aviation certificate
or rating. [Figure 4-5] The FAA frequently reviews the test
items in an attempt to maintain their validity in the current
4-7
aviation environment. It is a widely accepted belief in the
aviation community that test items included as part of a test
or evaluation should be both content valid and criterion
valid. Content validity means that a particular maneuver or
procedure closely mimics what is required. Criterion validity
means that the completion standards for the test are reflective
of acceptable standards.
For example, in flight training, content validity is reflected
by a particular maneuver closely mimicking a maneuver
required in actual flight, such as the student pilot being able
to recover from a power-off stall. Criterion validity means
that the completion standards for the test are reflective of
acceptable standards in actual flight. Thus, the student pilot
exhibits knowledge of all the elements involved in a poweroff stall as listed in the PTS.
As discussed in chapter 2, humans develop cognitive skills
through active interaction with the world. This concept has
led to the adoption of scenario-based training (SBT) in many
fields, including aviation. An effective aviation instructor
uses the maneuver-based approach of the PTS but presents
the objectives in a scenario situation.
It has been found that flight students using SBT methods
demonstrate stick-and-rudder skills equal to or better than
students trained under the maneuver-based approach only. Of
even more significance is that the same data also suggest that
SBT students demonstrate better decision-making skills than
maneuver based students—most likely because their training
occurred while performing realistic flight maneuvers and not
artificial maneuvers designed only for the test.
Research also indicates SBT may lead to improved piloting
and navigation skills over traditional maneuver-based
training techniques. SBT trained participants demonstrated
the same skills and knowledge as the maneuver-based
trained participants, but the maneuvers were practiced in the
context of a scenario. Many scenarios were coupled to the
maneuver until the student not only had the requisite skills,
but also related them to many conditions where they would
be needed. The data also support that when a condition occurs
requiring a maneuver, the SBT participant responded quickly
and more accurately than the participant trained only under
the maneuver-based approach. A participant lacking SBT
instruction must search his or her memory to link a maneuver
to a situation.
The incorporation of SBT as part of the lesson is discussed
in more detail later in this chapter, as well as in Chapter 6,
Planning Instructional Activity.
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Aviation Instructor's Handbook航空教员手册(69)
