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to the clear.
Jean Piaget, who spent 50 years studying how children
develop intellectually, became a major figure in the school
of cognitive thought. His research led him to conclude there
is always tension between assimilation (old ideas meeting
new situations) and accommodation (changing the old
ideas to meet the new situations). The resolution of this
tension results in intellectual growth. Thus, humans develop
2-4
cognitive skills through active interaction with the world (a
basic premise of scenario-based training (SBT), discussed
later in this chapter).
An American psychologist who studied with Piaget, Jerome
Bruner became interested in how intellectual development
related to the process of learning, His research led him
to advocate learning from the known to the unknown, or
from the concrete to the abstract, because humans best
learn when relating new knowledge to existing knowledge.
He introduced and developed the concept of the spiral
curriculum, which revisits basic ideas repeatedly and builds
on them in increasingly sophisticated ways as the student
matures and develops.
Consider the opening scenario with Bill and Beverly. Bill
might effectively use this theory with Beverly because she
arrived at her first class with a store of aviation facts. Building
upon this knowledge, Bill can teach her how to keep the
aircraft in straight and level flight while he reinforces what
she knows about basic aerodynamics via demonstration and
discussion. Since aerodynamics is a constant thread in the
flight lessons, Bill is also able to employ the spiral curriculum
concept in future lesson by repeatedly revisiting the basic
concepts and building upon them as Beverly’s skill and
knowledge increase.
In the mid-1900s, a group of educators led by Benjamin
Bloom tried to classify the levels of thinking behaviors
thought to be important in the processes of learning.
[Figure 2-4] They wanted to classify education goals and
objectives based on the assumption that abilities can be
measured along a continuum from simple to complex. The
result, which remains a popular framework for cognitive
theory, was Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain.
The taxonomy (a classification system according to presumed
relationships) comprises six levels of intellectual behavior
and progresses from the simplest to the most complex:
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis,
and evaluation. For more detailed information about the
taxonomy, see Domains of Learning.
Continued research into cognitive theory has led to theories
such as information processing and constructivism.
Information Processing Theory
Information processing theory uses a computer system as
a model for human learning. The human brain processes
incoming information, stores and retrieves it, and generates
responses to the information. This involves a number of
cognitive processes: gathering and representing information
(encoding), retaining of information, and retrieving the
information when needed.
This learning system has limitations and must be operated
properly. A computer gets input from a keyboard, mouse,
etc., whereas the human brain gets input from the senses of
sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. The amount of sensory
input the brain receives per second ranges from thousands to
millions of bits of information according to various theories.
Regardless of the number, that is a lot of information for the
brain to track and process.
One way the brain deals with all this information is to let
many of the habitual and routine things go unnoticed. For
example, a pilot who uses the rudder when entering a turn is
usually unaware of pressing the pedal, even though it involves
moving a leg, exerting pressure on the pedal, etc. The
human unconscious takes charge, leaving conscious thought
processes free to deal with issues that are not habitual.
Since information processing theorists approach learning
primarily through a study of memory, this learning concept
is revisited during the discussion of memory.
Constructivism
A derivative of cognitive theory, constructivism is a
philosophy of learning that can be traced to the eighteenth
century. This theory holds that learners do not acquire
knowledge and skills passively but actively build or construct
them based on their experiences. As implied by its name,
constructivism emphasizes the constructing or building that
goes on in a learner’s mind when he or she learns. Therefore,
it creates a learner-centered learning environment in which
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