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transfer. Near transfer consists of transfer from initial
learning that is situated in a given setting to ones that are
closely related. Far transfer refers both to the ability to use
what was learned in one setting to a different one as well
as the ability to solve novel problems that share a common
structure with the knowledge initially acquired. There is a
third way to talk about transfer called generativity. In this
context it means learners have the ability on their own to
come up with novel solutions.
During a learning experience, things learned previously
usually aid the student, but sometimes previous learning
interferes with the current learning task. Consider the learning
of two skills. If the learning of skill A helps to learn skill
B, positive transfer occurs. If learning skill A hinders the
learning of skill B, negative transfer occurs. For example,
the practice of slow flight (skill A) helps Beverly learn
short-field landings (skill B). However, practice in making a
landing approach in an airplane (skill A) may hinder learning
to make an approach in a helicopter (skill B). It should be
noted that the learning of skill B might affect the retention
or proficiency of skill A, either positively or negatively.
While these processes may help substantiate the interference
theory of forgetting, they are still concerned with the transfer
of learning.
It is clear that some degree of transfer is involved in all
learning. This is true because, except for certain inherent
responses, all new learning is based upon previously learned
experience. People interpret new things in terms of what they
already know.
Many aspects of teaching profit by this type of transfer,
perhaps explaining why students of apparently equal ability
have differing success in certain areas. Negative transfer
may hinder the learning of some; positive transfer may
help others. This points to a need to know a student’s past
experience and what has already been learned. In lesson and
syllabus development, instructors can plan for transfer by
organizing course materials and individual lesson materials
in a meaningful sequence. Each phase should help the student
learn what is to follow.
The cause of transfer and exactly how it occurs is difficult to
determine, but no one disputes the fact that transfer occurs.
For the instructor, the significance of transference lies in
the fact that the students can be helped to achieve it. The
following suggestions are representative of what educational
psychologists believe should be done:
• Plan for transfer as a primary objective. As in all areas
of teaching, the chance for success is increased if the
instructor deliberately plans to achieve it.
• Ensure that the students understand that what is
learned can be applied to other situations. Prepare
them to seek other applications.
2-37
• Maintain high-order learning standards. Overlearning
may be appropriate. The more thoroughly the students
understand the material, the more likely they are to see
its relationship to new situations. Avoid unnecessary
rote learning, since it does not foster transfer.
• Provide meaningful learning experiences that build
student confidence in their ability to transfer learning.
This suggests activities that challenge them to exercise
their imagination and ingenuity in applying their
knowledge and skills.
• Use instructional material that helps form valid
concepts and generalizations. Use materials that make
relationships clear.
Habit Formation
The formation of correct habit patterns from the beginning
of any learning process is essential to further learning and
for correct performance after the completion of training.
Remember, primacy is one of the fundamental principles
of learning. Therefore, it is the instructor’s responsibility to
insist on correct techniques and procedures from the outset
of training to provide proper habit patterns. It is much easier
to foster proper habits from the beginning of training than to
correct faulty ones later.
Due to the high level of knowledge and skill required in
aviation for both pilots and maintenance technicians, training
has traditionally followed a building block concept. This
means new learning and habit patterns are based on a solid
foundation of experience and/or old learning. Everything
from intricate cognitive processes to simple motor skills
depends on what the student already knows and how that
knowledge can be applied in the present. As knowledge
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Aviation Instructor's Handbook航空教员手册(53)
