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is dramatic and impacts more than one of the five senses,
that information is more likely to make an impression. The
sensory memory processes stimuli from the environment
within seconds, discards what is considered extraneous, and
processes what is determined by the individual to be relevant.
This is a selective process where the sensory register is set
to recognize certain stimuli and immediately transmit them
to the short-term memory (STM) for action. The process
is called precoding. An example of sensory precoding is
recognition of a fire alarm. No matter what is happening at
the time, when the sensory register detects a fire alarm, the
working memory is immediately made aware of the alarm
and preset responses begin to take place. Sensory memory
is capable of retaining information for only a very short
period of time and within seconds the relevant information
is passed to the STM.
Short-Term Memory (STM)
Short-term memory is the part of the memory system where
information is stored for roughly 30 seconds, after which it
may rapidly fade or be consolidated into long-term memory,
depending on the individual’s priorities. Several common
steps help retention in STM. These include rehearsal or
repetition of the information and sorting or categorization
into systematic chunks. The sorting process is usually called
coding or chunking. A key limitation of STM is that it takes
5–10 seconds to properly code information and if the coding
process is interrupted, that information is easily lost since it
is stored for only 30 seconds. The goal of the STM is to put
the information to immediate use.
The STM is not only time limited, it also has limited capacity,
usually about seven bits or chunks of information. A sevendigit telephone number is an example. As indicated, the
time limitation may be overcome by rehearsal. This means
learning the information by a rote memorization process. Of
course, rote memorization is subject to imperfections in both
the duration of recall and in its accuracy. The coding process
is more useful in a learning situation. In addition, the coding
process may involve recoding to adjust the information to
individual experiences. This is when actual learning begins to
take place. Therefore, recoding may be described as a process
of relating incoming information to concepts or knowledge
already in memory.
Brain research has led to the conclusion that STM resembles
the control tower of a major airport and is responsible for
scheduling and coordinating all incoming and outgoing
flights. STM has three basic operations: iconic memory,
acoustic memory, and working memory. Iconic memory is
2-33
SENSORY REGISTER LONG-TERM MEMORY
WORKING OR
SHORT-TERM MEMORY
Memory Systems
Quick Scan for
Importance
Precoding
Coding
Rehearsal
Recoding
Process
Store
Recall
Figure 2-24. Information processing within the sensory register, working on short-term memory, and long-term memory includes complex
coding, sorting, storing, and recall functions.
the brief sensory memory of visual images. Acoustic memory
is the encoded memory of a brief sound memory or the ability
to hold sounds in STM. Of the two, acoustic memory can
be held longer than iconic memory. Working memory is
an active process to keep information until it is put to use
(think of a phone number repeated until used). It is useful in
remembering a spoken sentence or a string of digits.
Also called “scratch-pad” memory, working memory is of
short duration and has limited capacity. It simultaneously
stores and manipulates information. The goal of the working
memory is not really to move the information from STM to
long-term memory (LTM), but merely put the information
to immediate use.
STM retention makes information available long enough
for it to be rehearsed. For example, if the learner repeats the
number to himself, it can be transferred to some sort of longer
term storage. To retain information for extended periods of
time, it must be transferred from STM to LTM. This process
involves encoding or consolidation of information into LTM
where it can then be retrieved.
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Long-term memory (LTM) is relatively permanent storage
of unlimited information and it is possible for memories in
LTM to remain there for a lifetime. What is stored in LTM
affects a person’s perceptions of the world and affects what
information in the environment is noticed. Information that
passes from STM to LTM typically has some significance
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