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but each trial provides clues for improvement in subsequent
trials. The student modifies different aspects of the skill such
as how to hold the yoke or weld correctly.
How long does it take to become proficient at a skill? Studies
of skill learning have demonstrated that progress tends
to follow what is known as a power law of practice. This
law simply states that the speed of performance of a task
improves as a power of the number of times that the task is
performed. The logarithm of the reaction time for a particular
task decreases linearly with the logarithm of the number of
practice trials taken. Qualitatively, the law simply says that
practice improves performance.
The graph in Figure 2-17 shows how the power law of
practice relates the time required to perform a skill to the
number of times the skill has been practiced. While it is
impossible to predict how many practice trials a student will
recquire to develop a skill to maturity, the general shape
of the power law of practice offers some clues. Learning
progress proceeds at a fast pace in the beginning (when
there is ample room for improvement) and tends to slow
down as performance becomes more skilled. In later stages
of learning, improvement is more gradual. Once the curve
levels off, it may stay level for a significant period of time.
Further improvement may even seem unlikely. This is called
a learning plateau.
Learning Plateaus
Learning plateaus are a normal part of the learning process
and tend to be temporary, but instructors and students should
be prepared for them. A learning plateau may signify any
number of conditions. For example, the student may have
reached capability limits, may be consolidating levels of
skill, interest may have waned, or the student may need a
more efficient method for increasing progress. Instructors
themselves can bring on a learning plateau by overpractice.
After repeating any task three or four times, give it a break
to avoid causing a learning plateau. Keep in mind that the
apparent lack of increasing proficiency does not necessarily
2-22
Figure 2-18. A student exhibits deliberate practice by plotting
courses for his next training flight.
mean that learning has ceased. The point is that, in learning
motor skills, a leveling off process, or plateau, is normal
and should be expected after an initial period of rapid
improvement. The instructor should prepare the student for
this situation to avert discouragement. If the student is aware
of this learning plateau, frustration may be minimized.
Instructors can help students who fall into a learning plateau
by moving the student to a different place in the curriculum
and giving the current task a break. Instructors should also
be aware that they can bring on a learning plateau by overpractice. Learning plateau problems can sometimes be
alleviated also by the instructor better explaining the lesson,
the reason for the lesson, and how it applies to the student.
Types of Practice
Once a student learns the skill, it is important to continue
some practice to improve retention, but the power law of
practice raises the question of whether or not there is a point
at which continued practice no longer leads to improvement.
Since athletic coaches, among others, are very interested in
maximizing performance, much research has been done on
the subject. Within the last few years, research has shown
that how practice is structured makes an important impact on
how well people retain what they have learned.
There are three types of practice, each of which yields
particular results in acquiring skills: deliberate, blocked,
and random.
Deliberate Practice
In order for a student to gain skill knowledge and learn how to
perform the skill on the automatic level, a student must engage
in deliberate practice. This practice is aimed at a particular
goal. During deliberate practice, the student practices specific
areas for improvement and receives specific feedback after
practice. The feedback points out discrepancies between the
actual performance and the performance goal sought. During
deliberate practice, a student focuses on eliminating these
discrepancies. [Figure 2-18]
Studies of skill learning suggest a student achieves better
results if distractions are avoided during deliberate practice.
When feedback is needed to correct student performance, it
should be brief and explicit. Examples of individual skills for
pilots are landings, stalls, steep turns, and procedure flows.
Examples for maintenance technicians are correct installation
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Aviation Instructor's Handbook航空教员手册(38)
