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the airspace, and geographical location of the airspace is
the responsibility of all pilots. The current sectional chart
is the primary offi cial tool to determine the airspace fl ying
within or avoiding.
Pilotage is navigation by reference to landmarks to determine
location and the location of airspace. Pilotage is the best form
of navigation to ensure that you avoid airspace not authorized
to enter. Locating your position on the sectional chart and
locating/identifying the airspace you want to enter/avoid
requires prefl ight planning on the ground and situational
awareness in the air.
For all fl ights, pilots must be sure to have enough fuel to
complete the fl ight. For longer cross-country fl ights, this
requires the pilot to check winds aloft and calculate the
groundspeed for the planned altitude and forecast wind. The
resultant time to the destination and the fuel consumption
determines the fuel required to make the fl ight. This prefl ight
planning is especially important for slower WSC aircraft
because increased headwind components provide signifi cant
time increases to get to fuel stops than faster aircraft.
Although 14 CFR section 91.151 requires airplanes to have
at least 30 minutes of reserve fuel for an intended fuel stop;
this minimum is also recommended for WSC aircraft. The
Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge chapter on
navigation provides procedures in navigation, plotting a
course, determining groundspeed for the predicted wind,
headings and the required fuel for intended legs of the fl ight.
For any cross-country fl ight, a fl ight log should be used and
the planned groundspeed should be compared to the actual
GPS groundspeed measured in fl ight. If the GPS groundspeed
is lower than the planned groundspeed, the time en route and
the fuel reserves must be evaluated to assure the WSC aircraft
does not run out of fuel during the fl ight.
GPS is a very popular form of navigation used by WSC pilots.
The GPS receiver is small, simple to use, and inexpensive
compared to other forms of electronic (radio) navigation.
Simple modes of operation provide actual groundspeed and
time to a waypoint. More sophisticated GPSs have aviation
databases and provide the pilot a considerable amount of
information about airports and airspace. When using GPS
to determine airspace or airport position, boundaries, and/
or information, the aviation database in the GPS may not
exactly match the information as depicted on the sectional
chart. If there is a difference between the sectional chart and
GPS information, the sectional chart should be considered
correct.
A WSC pilot using GPS should ensure that the batteries
are fresh and the aviation database is current. Never rely on
the GPS as a primary navigation system. Pilotage using the
sectional chart is the primary navigation system when fl ying
beyond visual range of a familiar airport. The GPS is used
only as a backup aid for navigation.
With proper prefl ight planning and constant evaluation of
the planned verses actual fl ight performance, cross-country
fl ight is practical in the NAS for WSC pilots.
Chapter Summary
At fi rst glance, the NAS appears to be a complex arena
in which to operate such a simple aircraft. This chapter
simplifi es the airspace for the reader, and makes it readily
apparent that it is possible to operate a WSC aircraft safely,
without causing confl ict.
Simple courtesy and common sense go a long way in airspace
operations. A complete and thorough understanding of the
airspace, combined with good decision-making, will allow
the pilot to do what he or she wishes, with recognition of the
needs of other users of the sky.
8-14
9-1
Introduction
Ground reference maneuvers and their related factors are
used in developing a high degree of pilot skill. Although
most of these maneuvers are not performed in normal
everyday fl ying, the elements and principles involved are
applicable to performance of the customary pilot operations.
The maneuvers aid the pilot in analyzing the effect of wind
and other forces acting on the aircraft and in developing
a fine control touch, coordination, and the division of
attention necessary for accurate and safe maneuvering of
the aircraft.
Ground Reference
Maneuvers
Chapter 9
9-2
The early part of a pilot’s training is conducted at relatively
high altitudes for the purpose of developing technique,
knowledge of maneuvers, coordination, feel, and the handling
of the aircraft in general. This training requires that most of
the pilot’s attention be given to the actual handling of the
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Weight-Shift Control Aircraft Flying Handbook(101)
