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officer said of the New York Approach controller, “the guy is angry”—a qualitative
judgement, not necessarily correct, and with what affect on his subsequent decisionmaking
and actions?
The soundness of these judgements has not been tested but is likely to be studied in
the near future. The question to be answered is: can qualitative information in speech
be safely eliminated because it is not essential for system safety or efficiency, or, are
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the judgements made from them sufficiently incorrect that the system would be better
off without them?
Hopkin (1995) also points out that communications and phraseologies are observable
means that permit management, team leaders and others to judge the professional
competence of individual controllers and on lapses in that competence. As we shall
see, it also has a cultural dimension.
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Speedbird Nine: Mayday, Mayday, Mayday—Speedbird Nine. We have lost all four
engines. Out of [Flight Level] 370.
Jakarta Control: Speedbird Nine, have you got a problem?
Speedbird Nine: Jakarta Control—Speedbird Nine. We have lost all four engines.
Now out of 360.
Jakarta Control: Speedbird Nine—you have lost number four engine?
Speedbird Nine: Jakarta Control—Speedbird Nine has lost all four engines, repeat
all four engines! Now descending through Flight Level 350!
—British Airways B747 emergency
(flight through volcanic ash)
Java, 1982.
(Job, 1996)
4. Voice Communications in the Air Traffic System
Air traffic control is based upon the processing of information provided in aural,
visual and written form. Of the plethora of skills needed by a controller, the two most
important are the ability to communicate and the ability to receive and disseminate
information. Information obtained through speech is universal: every ATC job
requires some verbal communication by the controller, and includes information
spoken to the controller by pilots or other controllers. Nearly all the highly dynamic
information, such as clearances, traffic separation and avoidance information, weather
information and flight plan changes, is currently transferred by means of voice over
radiotelephone.
Speech has great flexibility as a means of communication. The apparent ease with
which we communicate in daily life—and the general lack of serious consequences
when we miscommunicate—tends to disguise the complex process which can cause
problems in the aviation system. In air traffic control, much of the richness of English
and the flexibility and utility of speech must be curbed in the interests of
standardisation, intelligibility, completeness and the prevention of misunderstanding
and error. The resultant ATC speech is often unintelligible to the outside listener
because it is a lexicon of abbreviations, acronyms and jargon; even if the words can
be made out, they do not make much sense without a knowledge of the air traffic
control task. The correct interpretation of this speech relies heavily on the experience
and training of pilots and controllers. A critically high information element in a small
part of the message between a pilot and controller may be lost easily because, as we
have seen, speech is subject to some characteristic sources of misunderstanding and
confusion that are independent of its content.
Some of the problems are associated with human attributes, such as accents or nonnative
speakers of English. Cultural sensitivity is a rising area of concern as the
industry grows in Asia and Central and South America. Technical issues are more
straightforward such as those of frequency failures, high background noise in busy
ATC environments and measurable speech distortions that characterise
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communications equipment, such as headsets, telephones, intercoms and
loudspeakers.
4.1 Standardisation in Communications
Hamilton (1991) has written, “a system is only as reliable as its weakest link and it
can be said with reasonable confidence that the weakest link in the aviation system is
the human component”. Humans contribute the flexibility necessary to the air traffic
system but human performance is erratic. Controllers and pilots make mistakes and,
due to the dynamics of the system, these mistakes can be serious. The means used to
protect pilots and controllers from human error and incorrect and inconsistent system
operation is the standardisation of procedures and communications. There is an
argument for having stricter procedures for communicating information than those for
operating hardware, says Byron (1992), since the human involvement in
communication is greater and, in air traffic control, requires ‘double-handling’ where
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