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identified as causal factors in 36 of them (13%).
A recent Bureau of Air Safety Investigation (BASI) study into the failure of pilots to
comply with air traffic clearances at Sydney determined that, while the rate of
incidents based on total movements was small, an average rate of two incidents per
week was occurring involving high capacity public transport aircraft (BASI, 1997a).
Communications problems were identified as one of the four underlying factors,
particularly with foreign crews—the majority of pilots surveyed considered that it was
the main area of concern. Of 175 summary reports of incidents provided to me by
BASI, 35 of them (20%) identifiably have miscommunications as causal factors
(BASI, 1998a).
Problems of miscommunication are not confined to the aviation industry, of course.
For example, lack of a regularised communications system utilising standard, defined
terminology was identified as a contributing factor in the nuclear accident at Three
Mile Island in 1979 (Barrett, 1982). More often than not, though, there is time for
individuals to expose and clarify misunderstandings. The Three Mile Island accident,
for instance, unfolded over four days. Time, however, is in short supply for
controllers and pilots—it is a time-sensitive environment. They cannot see each other
nor each other’s actions, so an important means of error detection is unavailable. The
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rapid trajectories of modern aircraft flight combined with busy sectors and airports
provide limited opportunities for aircrew and controllers to step back and reassess
situations before they must move on to other tasks.
Communications problems have been studied in terms of their consequences, such as
operational errors and accidents, and the results published in aviation safety journals.
They can also be described as a concept of information transfer based on the
information theory perspective of communications. Perceptual problems occur which
lead to misproducing and misunderstanding messages, and linguistic problems are a
product of the nature of language itself.
I will look at all these aspects of miscommunications in this paper, mainly from the
perspective of the air traffic controller.
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“Don’t talk to him too much”, the captain advised the first officer of the air traffic
controller. “He’s trying to get us to admit we made a big mistake coming through
here”.
—cockpit voice recorder transcript,
Lockheed 188A Electra crash near Dawson, Texas, 1968.
(Gero, 1996)
2. The Controller/Pilot Relationship
The air traffic controller plays a central role in the safety of the air traffic system.
Amongst other responsibilities, the controller reduces the pilot’s workload by taking
over the role of detecting and resolving conflicts with other aircraft operating in the
same or adjacent airspace, and by providing warnings and advice of known weather
hazards and possible military airspace infringements. But in order to understand how
miscommunications can occur between pilots and controllers, it is necessary to
understand the differing perspectives they each have of the system.
2.1 The Air Traffic Control System
The goal of the air traffic system is to accomplish “the safe, efficient conduct of
aircraft flights” and “to maintain a safe, orderly and expeditious flow of air traffic”
(Airservices Australia, 1995:F1). As Watkins (1983) has pointed out, air traffic
controllers, with their common language, are the crucial link in international aviation.
The seamless flight of air traffic across international borders and through jealously
guarded sovereign airspace of, often, mutually antagonistic nations would not be
possible without the co-ordination of controllers. Whether nationally or
internationally, the joint goals of safety and efficiency are accomplished through an
intricate series of procedures, judgements, plans, decisions, communications and coordinating
activities. The public is familiar with the radio communications which
occur between pilots and controllers but equally as critical are the co-ordinations
within and between air traffic control facilities when controllers ‘hand-off’ aircraft as
they pass from one controller’s sector of responsibility to another. “The predominate
factor of the ATC system”, writes Stock (1993), ‘is that it is centred on the controller
with all the safety critical decisions emanating from that source”. Figure 1 illustrates
the central role of the controller.
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.
Other controllers,
esp. Flow
controller
Air Traffic Management
The Air Traffic Controller
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