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Thus good communications are necessary to overcome misunderstandings and to
expose false assumptions. For example, a pilot will probably be unaware of the other
traffic that influences a controller’s decision to issue inconvenient or complicated
instructions. In such cases, controllers will, time permitting, try to include the pilot in
the decision-making process by explaining the reason for the instructions
(colloquially known as “wording up the pilot”). The pilot is more likely to support
the final decision and it improves the crew’s situational awareness.
Never-the-less, it is important that communication by controllers be understood, not
as a mere transfer of information, but as a means of achieving a certain mode of
behaviour from the pilot. This carries the authority of CAR 100. The communication
is command oriented and reflects the central role of the controller implementing his or
her plan to resolve airspace problems. Thus, during routine operations, the controllers
message is nearly twice as long as the pilots because the controller issues instructions
which the pilot acknowledges (Roske-Hofstrand and Murphy, 1998).
Communications between controllers differs in that they make inquiries, observations
and answer questions in order to develop and maintain a shared mental picture. The
hierarchical communications structure established by the Civil Aviation Regulations
between pilots and controllers does not exist between controllers. When the traffic
handling plans of two adjacent controllers conflict, they must quickly negotiate a
satisfactory resolution based on traffic priorities. Studies indicate that the best
performing radar controllers make significantly more enquiries about the control
situation (Fisher and Kulick, 1998). These controllers make more acknowledgements
22
of the information received and indicate more response uncertainties. Their technique
appears to be one of using team communications to gather information to update their
situational awareness and to respond to and check on the information that is being
passed to them by other controllers.
3.7 Qualitative Information in Speech
Two kinds of information are contained in speech: quantitative information and
qualitative information. Essentially they distinguish what is said from how it is said.
Quantitative information includes an aircraft’s speed, level, heading, position, and
so on, and can be communicated in writing or digitally and displayed. Qualitative
information includes voice quality, formality, degree of stereotyping, pronunciation,
accent, pace, pauses, level of detail, redundancy, courtesy, adherence to standard
phraseologies, acknowledgement and so on (Hopkin, 1995; National Research
Council, 1997). Pronunciation alone communicates information such as the speaker’s
geographical origin, social class and education. This information is sensed and
processed based upon the listener’s experience. Hopkin considers that the amount of
qualitative information that pilots and controllers obtain from speech, and the
judgements which they then make from it, has been seriously underestimated.
Rightly or wrongly, pilots make judgements about the competence and reliability of the
air traffic control service they are receiving and request clarification, confirmation and
supporting evidence accordingly. Similarly, controllers make judgements about
individual pilots based on what each says and does, and they may check more
frequently that their instructions are being obeyed or require more transition states to be
reported if they believe that a pilot is inexperienced or unfamiliar with local
procedures. (Hopkin, 1995:27)
Controllers and pilots believe that speech conveys useful information about individual
confidence, authoritativeness, competence, professionalism, irritability, uncertainty
and unease. They then use this information as a basis for decision-making and acting.
For instance, given the right degree of situational awareness, controllers and pilots
can obtain important cues from the degree of proficiency they each display in radio
transmissions and will adjust the complexity of their instructions or requests
accordingly; a controller may talk more slowly to what he or she believes is a trainee
pilot; a controller will enunciate more carefully for a pilot with a foreign accent; a
pilot will omit pleasantries to a controller who sounds exceptionally busy. But
qualitative information is not beneficial if, for example, it leads to a pilot not pressing
a point with what he or she perceives to be a busy or flustered controller. Not long
before the Boeing 707 crashed after fuel exhaustion, Avianca Flight 052’s second
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