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• “The topic of survival is only discussed relative to the
survival kit. Although the contents of survival kits differ,
the basic information is acceptable, if expanded. Many
issues dealing with the environment, injuries and mental
attitude of victims are not discussed. For example,
passengers could be abandoning the aircraft directly into
the water instead of [into] the rafts. It is likely that jet
fuel, oil and hydraulic fluid would be contaminating the
water; these fluids can [impair] vision and hearing —
and produce nausea. [Immersion in water also presents]
a serious threat of hypothermia (Table 4, page 8) [with
survival time related to water temperature, clothing and
head covering, body type, health status, fitness and other
factors]. … ;
• “On the water, the cornerstone of survival is effective
raft management. Topics such as distributing weight in
rafts and capsizing should be expanded. … The raft
commander should instruct all passengers to wear their
life vests at all times and should designate one person to
secure himself or herself to the raft in case it capsizes.15
… It is also important to secure all of the survival
equipment in the raft to prevent loss if the raft capsizes.
In [particular], it would be beneficial for [aircraft
crewmembers] to practice righting a capsized raft during
training, especially on the open sea, if possible;
• “[Cabin crewmembers] would also have a better
understanding of basic raft-survivability [factors] if more
information on raft shapes and sizes were included in
training. For example, explanations of the bearing on
seaworthiness produced by changes in freeboard (the
distance from the surface of the water to the top of the
raft’s buoyancy tube) would better prepare
[crewmembers] to maintain raft stability and flotation,
especially with damaged rafts;
• “Essential information concerning what to expect during
the various types of rescue, and practice in the use of
rescue equipment, is omitted from training. … Rescue
procedures and the use of rescue devices should be taught
8 FLIGHT SAFETY FOUNDATION • CABIN CREW SAFETY • NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 1998
in the initial training class. It is important that [aircraft
crewmembers] know what to do should rotor wash from
a rescue helicopter capsize the raft and how to handle
extraction of the survivors if a rescue swimmer is not
deployed [from the helicopter]; [and,]
• “To prevent depressing the morale of survivors, [cabin
crewmembers] should … inform survivors that when a
helicopter comes to rescue them, [the aircraft] will only
accommodate a certain number of passengers, and that
remaining survivors will have to wait for [additional
flights]. [Crewmembers] should also be familiar with
the various types of rescue equipment and how to prevent
injuries while using [this equipment]. … Lack of training
and practice on rescue-related topics indicates that [cabin
crewmembers] do not have the skill or proficiency to
assist with rescue. [More comprehensive water-survival
training] materials are … readily available from civil
sources and U.S. military [services] and could be
assembled into a meaningful and relevant airline-training
program [to address deficiencies identified in this
analysis].”16
The study recommended that approved flotation-seat cushions
be installed in all passenger-carrying aircraft to provide every
passenger and [aircraft] crewmember with a means of flotation
in any emergency water landing — not only for extended
overwater flights.
The study also cited debriefing notes from a 1994 simulated
emergency water landing and examples from several accidents
as anecdotal support for the recommended improvements in
training. (See “Water-accident Experiences Support
Recommendations for Cabin-crewmember Training” on page
9.) Seven airlines, several ditching-equipment manufacturers
and 65 federal, state and local government agencies conducted
the airport-disaster exercise for the Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood
International Airport, Florida, U.S.
Table 4
Symptoms of Extended Exposure to Water at Different Temperatures
Symptom Degrees Fahrenheit Degrees Celsius Time
Loss of use of hands and forearms 38 3 15 minutes
48 9 20 minutes
70 21 3 hours
Loss of mental activity 38 3 45 minutes
48 9 1 hour
70 21 4 hours 30 minutes
Hypothermia and death 38 3 1 hour 5 minutes
48 9 1 hour 30 minutes
70 21 6 hours
Source: U.S. Federal Aviation Administration
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