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ditching and water-survival training program based entirely
on that information is inadequate.”
A review of aircraft-manufacturer recommendations and airline training
programs for emergency water landings found emphasis on procedures and
equipment for ditching, although unplanned water contact near airports during
takeoff or landing — with minimal preparation time — is the most common
scenario in transport-category aircraft accidents.
FSF Editorial Staff
2 FLIGHT SAFETY FOUNDATION • CABIN CREW SAFETY • NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 1998
Safety researchers believe that U.S. Federal Aviation Regulations
(FARs) for transport-category aircraft primarily have treated
emergency water landing as a planned occurrence. By one
definition, researchers have considered an emergency water
landing a “ditching” if the descent rate does not exceed five feet
(1.5 meters) per second — equivalent to 300 feet (91 meters)
per minute — and vertical loads are within aircraft design
parameters.3 Ditching also has been defined as a planned
emergency event in which the flight crewmembers deliberately
land in water with the aircraft under control. Before a ditching,
cabin crewmembers presumably have some amount of time for
donning life preservers and preparing the aircraft and passengers.
Ditching generally has been contrasted by researchers with
“unplanned water contact” (sometimes called “inadvertent
water impact”) in which there is little or no time for aircraftcrewmember
preparation or passenger preparation. (Depending
on the purpose of the analysis, some researchers have adopted
more water-contact categories, such as takeoff overrun, landing
overrun, planned ditching and unplanned ditching.) Such
uncontrolled, high-energy water impacts near airports have
occurred more often than ditching during extended overwater
flights by transport-category aircraft.4
“Current water-survival-related regulations and training are
focused primarily on ditchings occurring at sea on extended
overwater flights; however, virtually all survivable
water-related accidents are inadvertent and occur near
airports,5” said the study. [Note: Numbered reference notes
within quotations in this article indicate information sources
as cited by the authors in the 1998 study for the FAA.] “Thus,
water-landing accidents are generally unplanned and, because
airline training programs rarely address issues of this nature,
flight [crewmembers] are at a disadvantage in dealing with an
inadvertent water landing.6 In fact, typical ditching procedures
may be inappropriate in such instances, as likely water-related
accident scenarios would include problems at the time of
takeoff or landing.7 … [NTSB] accident reports show that in
inadvertent, survivable water-related accidents, the aircraft is
likely to come to rest in a nose-high flotation attitude, sustain
severe damage, experience rapid flooding, and in most cases,
sink within a few minutes. … In all, the challenges to [aircraft
crewmembers] and passengers in water-related accidents are
formidable, and the preparation of [crewmembers] and
passengers for such events is crucial if they are to survive.”
From 1959 to 1979, 16 survivable air-carrier water accidents
occurred worldwide (Table 1) — approximately 10 percent of
the total survivable air-carrier accidents, said the study.8 (Water
was considered a significant factor in 11 of these accidents, and
one of these accidents was classified as a ditching in a 1996
study.)9 A 1994 report said that 33 water-impact accidents
occurred worldwide from 1982 through 1989 in the commuter
category (Table 2).10 The 1998 study said that at least 179
certificated U.S. airports are located within five miles (eight
kilometers) of a significant body of water and the number of
Table 1
Survivable Water Landings Worldwide
1959–1979
Location Aircraft Type Date
Oso, Washington, U.S. Boeing 707 Oct. 19, 1959
Boston, Massachusetts, U.S. Boeing 720 Sept. 24, 1961
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil McDonnell Douglas DC-8 Aug. 20, 1962
New York (JFK), New York, U.S. Boeing 707 April 7, 1964
Hong Kong Aérospatiale SE. 210 Caravelle June 30, 1967
Hong Kong Convair 880 Nov. 5, 1967
Los Angeles, California, U.S. McDonnell Douglas DC-8 Jan. 13, 1969
Mexico City, Mexico Boeing 727 Sept. 21, 1969
Naha, Okinawa McDonnell Douglas DC-8 July 27, 1970
St. Croix, Virgin Islands McDonnell Douglas DC-9 May 2, 1970
Miami, Florida, U.S. Lockheed L-1011 Dec. 29, 1972
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Boeing 707 June 9, 1973
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