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Humans normally depend on the complex integration of the three above-mentioned sensory inputs,
i.e. eyes, inner ear and proprioceptors, for the perception of the body’s relationships to terrestrial
references.
The following are common examples of disorientation in flight:
a) In a horizontal turn, the illusion of continued straight flight may be experienced if the rate of turn
is too low to stimulate the semicircular canals.
b) The subjective impression of angle of bank during instrument flying is false when the angular
change is introduced gradually and below the thresholds of stimulation of the semicircular canals
and proprioceptors.
c) The “graveyard spiral” results when, in a prolonged (> 20 seconds), coordinated banked turn the
cupulae come to rest and the sensation of turning is lost. When leveling the wings, the pilot may
experience a sensation of now turning to the opposite side. To counter-act this sensation of
ICAO Preliminary Unedited Version — October 2008 II-1-17
turning, the pilot may re-enter the original turn. Because the instruments indicate loss of altitude,
the pilot may pull back on the stick and add power, thus making the turn tighter (increasing the
bank) and inducing the spiral.
d) The somatogravic illusion is caused by the effect of acceleration on the otolith organ. When
deprived of visual input from the surrounding world (for example taking-off in IMC6), a pilot
may interpret accelerative forces (+GX
7) as a nose high attitude of his aircraft, correct this false
sensation by pushing the stick forward and may thus fly his aircraft into the ground.
A further elaboration on disorientation in flight, as well as vertigo, is contained in Part III,
Chapters 10 and 12.
COMMUNICATIONS
The importance of the communication system in present-day civil aviation operations cannot be
overemphasized. Speech intelligibility and communication are vital elements in the safety of civil
aviation. In order to start the engine, taxi the aircraft, line up for take-off, get clearance for take- off, start
climbing procedures, reach cruising level, or to initiate the sequence of events that will lead to the safe
approach and landing of the aircraft at the destination, a licence holder must be able to transmit and
receive verbal instructions to and from the air traffic control system as well as from the crew complement.
In this particular respect, account should be taken not only of the physiological speech intelligibility in
noisy surroundings, but also of the aspect of hearing under operational conditions, when the attention is
required to encompass a multiplicity of stimuli which are of paramount importance.
Interference with intelligibility and speech communication is a potentially serious problem which can
be brought about by higher levels of noise at certain frequencies. This problem can prevent crew members
from communicating with each other, whether directly or by means of an intercommunication system
(“intercom”), and can also interfere with voice communication between ground and aircraft. When sound
pressure levels within cockpits and communication systems rise, the voice must be raised in order to
communicate against the noisy background, and if the interference becomes excessive, speech
intelligibility becomes adversely affected or lost altogether. This is auditory masking or “drowning out”
by noise; it lasts only whilst the noise is present. It represents the inability of the auditory system to
separate the different tonal components, and tends to be worse when the conflicting frequencies are
similar.
Apart from controlling noise sources, efforts must also be made to limit the entry of noise into the
communication system. The position can be further improved by selecting the best possible characteristics
for a communication system and by the use of special vocabularies (as standard ICAO phraseology for
Aeronautical Telecommunications, described in detail in Annex 10, Volume 2, Chapter 5). Apart from
engine and aerodynamic sources, noise can be generated by the cabin air conditioning system, by
electronic equipment within the cockpit, by certain types of oxygen regulators, and by the individual’s
breathing into a “live” microphone. The degree of interference will depend upon the relative frequencies
and strengths of the voice or tone signal and the ambient noise level.
6 IMC: Instrument Meteorological Conditions, i.e. weather with reduced visibility where only flying in accordance
with the Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) is allowed.
7 +Gx: Acceleration (G) is a change in velocity either in direction or in magnitude. It is described in three axes in
relation to the human body, x, y and z. Each axis is described as positive (+) or negative (–). +Gx is a forward
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