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percentage of human errors involves breakdowns in communication,
coordination, and group decision making. Crew resource
management training is effective in improving team coordination in
flight crews. Nevertheless, though improved training, and better
procedures, help, they will never eliminate human errors completely.
Accordingly, the introduction of technological improvements must
include improvements that support the detection and correction of
errors that do occur, and flight crews must have the training necessary
to enable them to work effectively with new procedures and
technology.
With the exception of TCAS/ACAS, training, even in flight
simulators, seldom is used to provide skills in infrequently encountered
tasks associated with collision risk. Also, pilots may enter the
workforce with an embedded behavior of keeping their attention
focused inside the cockpit.]
k. Operator procedures, manuals
l. Corporate culture
2. Air Traffic controller performance/skill
a. Monitoring/situational awareness
[Situation awareness in air traffic control is more vulnerable (and
more difficult to achieve) in a crowded, complex, less predictable and
heterogeneous airspace; when operating procedures are inconsistent;
when the controller is handling a less familiar sector; and under
conditions of high workload or distraction. All of these factors, which
contribute to the loss of situation awareness, will exert an even greater
influence in a future environment of greater traffic loads, reduced
separation minima, greater flexibility in routing, and other “free
flight” scenarios. Usually, aircraft move routinely and predictably
through the airspace, and so prediction is not too demanding.
However, when multiple aircraft are free to move in four dimensions
(three spatial and one time/airspeed) their positions at a future time is
not nearly as predictable. In such conditions, controller’s
capabilities to monitor and remain aware of the airspace activity of
SEPARATION SAFETY MODELING
A-20
multiple aircraft will be severely taxed.. Such circumstances may be
envisioned with the implementation of “free flight” concepts.
b. Decision making
[Decision making is vulnerable when information is incomplete,
conflicting, or unreliable, or when goals conflict. Furthermore,
vulnerability may be increased significantly whenever the controller is
confronted with high work-load (e.g., large numbers of aircraft), novel
situations, or tight time constraints. Time stress is a particularly
important factor in decision making, because it forces the controller to
choose among activities competing for attention. For example, the
controller may choose to skip some low-priority activity, or process all
of them but at a less complete level. The controller may defer some
activities, placing them in a queue to be dealt with later. All of these
strategies involve risk of error if the time available to revise and
assess decisions is substantially reduced. Training and improved
displays that promote effective decision making may help but only to
the extent that time is available prior to taking action.]
c. Controller/pilot communication/coordination
(Also see section F.1.c. of this outline)
[Coordination, reflected in verbal communication between pilot and
controller, will remain a critical component of air traffic control for
the foreseeable future. A major cause of air traffic control incidents
relates to breakdowns in communications and coordination between
the pilot and controller. Communication effectiveness depends,
among other things, on shared assumptions and shared situation
awareness. These directly affect the ability of pilots and controllers to
function effectively as a team. Uncertainty on the part of the
controller or pilot and a reduction in the level of coordination can
result from the lack of shared knowledge available to both members
of the team. One way, perhaps, of facilitating teamwork is through a
distributed management of air traffic control system between ground
and air with clearly defined areas of responsibility and through shared
displays and data link information..]
d. Controller/controller communications and coordination
[Controller “hand-offs” of aircraft from sector to sector and from one
facility to another require a high level of communication and
coordination. ATC facilities enter into procedural agreements with
each other to assure this and automation is used to ease the process .
Coordination is especially critical in the transition from en route
airspace to terminal airspace, where aircraft sequencing for landing
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a concept paper for separation safety modeling(66)
