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result in confusion, especially if the pilot is unused to estimating how
far the target travels in given time. In such a circumstance, a
persisting trail can draw the attention away from the target’s current
position.]
i. Empty visual field
[Although, clearly, there is more risk of collision in busy airspace,
visual acquisition may be more effective in a multi-target environment
than in one where a target appears only occasionally. If the pilot has
no outside visual stimulus, his eyes’ focal distance “defaults” to a
point not far ahead of the aircraft. In “inside a light bulb”
meteorological conditions, it can be difficult to know when the eye is
focused at a distance commensurate with early detection.]
j. Night accommodation
[When I was taught to fly, I learned that cockpit lighting should be kept
as low as possible to improve my ability to see beyond the windshield
in night operations. This idea seems to have gone out of the window
(excuse the weak pun). Particularly in cruise, pilots tend to turn up
SEPARATION SAFETY MODELING
A-6
the lights and conduct their business as if there were no risk of
collision.]
k. Party Line
[Pilots tend to listen to radio communications in their area and may
learn valuable information concerning ETAs and altitudes of
proximate aircraft, thus improving situational awareness. The value
of this technique should be quantified.]
l. Reliance on ground-based surveillance and procedures
[Collisions are very rare, and pilots may be complacent with the
success rate of radar systems and the procedures used in remote areas.
It is a sure bet that pilots are more vigilant when flying in Africa or
India than over Cleveland, despite the variation in traffic density.]
m. Cockpit workload, staffing, automation, and procedures
n. Flight crew training, skill, teamwork
o. TCAS/ACAS responsiveness (affected by aircraft bank angle, ...)
It should be noted that, in accordance with the guidance given in
ICAO Annex 11, the carriage of ACAS by aircraft within a region
should not be used to justify a reduced separation minimum.
However, the presence of such systems may be relevant when
contemplating the application of reduced separations as changes to
the ACAS systems may be required in order to avoid an
unacceptable rate of false alerts.
3. ATC intervention - factors that affect the probability of timely and effective
ATC intervention
a. Air traffic service provided
b. Climb/descent rate and acceleration (affects ATC computer projections)
c. Horizontal velocity and acceleration
d. Turn rate and turn acceleration (change in turn rate)
e. Airspace complexity
f. Traffic complexity and density
g. Proximity to an airspace boundary (e.g., SUA)
h ATC coordination (e.g., involving an aircraft in hand-off or point-out
status.)
i. Air traffic management tools for reducing controller workload and
improving controller intervention capability
1) Automated controller planning tools including trajectory projection,
conflict probe, and conflict resolution
2) Automated out-of-conformance alerts (3 D) (which alert ATC to any
deviation of an aircraft from its nominal path).
3) Controller display quality: picture, information, and presentation of
information
j. Controller skill, training, and teamwork
k. Controller workload, staffing, and procedures
4. Aircraft reaction - factors that affect aircraft reaction time in response to a
needed maneuver
APPENDIX A
FACTORS POTENTIALLY AFFECTING SEPARATION SAFETY
A-7
a. Aircraft performance (including maneuverability)
b. Pressure and density altitude (related to aircraft performance and
atmospheric conditions)
c. Speed (e.g., relative to stall speed, available thrust, etc.)
d. Climb/descent rate
e. Attitude and bank angle
f. Proximity to terrain
B. ATC rules and procedures; airspace structure
1. Hemispheric rules
2. Route structure, i.e., the use of parallel or non-parallel ATS routes and
whether they are bi-directional or uni-directional
3. Separation minima
a. Horizontal
b. Vertical
c. How often values close to the “official” separation minima are used in
practice
4. Flight planning
a. Requirement to file flight plan
b. Requirement to fly in conformance to flight plan
c. Requirement to cruise at certain discrete altitudes -- Hemispheric rules
5. Requirement to obtain clearance prior to altitude change
6. Positive control
7. Airspace complexity and flight path geometries, including the following:
a. Traffic demand pattern
b. Number of aircraft at same altitude
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a concept paper for separation safety modeling(59)
