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complex or attention demanding.
As a result, when the pace of operations increase (e.g., in more
dense airspace) difficulties in maintaining situation awareness can
reduce the pilot’s ability to anticipate potential problems.
Understanding these attentional dynamics relative to task complexity
and how they are affected by computer-based systems in the cockpit is
an important topic for progress in aiding situation awareness.]
b. Crew coordination and communication/Cockpit Resource Management
[The loss of situation awareness may affect not only the individual
pilot, but also impact the shared awareness of the crew. As a result,
the crew’s ability to maintain a shared frame of reference or common
situation assessment can break down, degrading communication and
coordination. Breakdowns in shared awareness is particularly serious
in more dynamic and complex flight contexts, where effective
coordination and communication across crew members is needed to
cope with non-routine or unexpected events. Poor crew coordination
and communication often have been implicated in major airline
accidents. This has underscored the need for crew coordination
procedures and for crew members to monitor and cross check the
actions of each other. These accidents have highlighted the need to
consider crew performance as well as individual performance.
c. Controller/pilot communication/coordination
(Also see section F.2.c. of this outline)
[In today’s environment, controller-pilot communication is a common
occurrence. Pilots receive, acknowledge, and request clearances to
make changes in altitude or flight paths, receive and transmit
information on weather, and receive notice of radio frequencies to use
in transitioning between sectors and facilities. Controllers issue
instructions to change courses when potential or actual conflicts arise
and when aircraft may enter restricted airspace. Problems in
communication sometimes occur as a result of non-standard
nomenclature, confusion as to whom a message is for, and messages
being “stepped on,” either as a result of the short delay between the
time a microphone is physically activated and the time the electronic
APPENDIX A
FACTORS POTENTIALLY AFFECTING SEPARATION SAFETY
A-15
activation actually occurs, or as the result of an “open” microphone
preventing communication by others. Some of these difficulties should
be mitigated with the introduction of data link and unique aircraft
identification codes.
Clearly, communication and coordination difficulties between
pilots and controllers may contribute to air traffic control (ATC)
errors. This is more likely in an ATC environment in which the
management of traffic is distributed differently than in today’s highlycentralized,
ground-based system. Tracking aircraft behavior and
system status becomes more difficult if it is possible for the pilot, for
example, to interact with the system without the need for or consent of
the controller. This problem becomes most obvious when an
experienced pilot and controller develop different strategies for
resolving a problem. When they have to arbitrate, it becomes
particularly difficult for them to maintain awareness of the history of
interaction with the system, which usually determines the response to
the next interaction. With the advent of “Free Flight” and the
requirement for distributed management (division of functionality
between ground and air), teamwork, as reflected in verbal and
electronic communication between controllers and flight crews, is
likely to be a critical component in aviation safety. Further, as more
automation is introduced, it is essential that its effects on teamwork
and inter-personal communication be evaluated.]
d. Response time
[Response time generally represents the delay in responding due
primarily to the time needed to organize a response. It has long been
accepted that response times are fastest when one has to respond to a
single event and are slowest when one has to respond to multiple
events with a separate response to each. In the latter situation, the
individual is required to discriminate among events and then choose
the appropriate response. Furthermore, temporal and event
uncertainty increase response time by increasing the demands to
search among alternatives and sustain attention. Moreover, the
effects of uncertainty or unpredictability are not fixed but will reflect
the state of training and skill of the individual. Nevertheless, there
appears to be a maximum or upper limit to response times in
situations similar to those that require a quick pilot response.
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a concept paper for separation safety modeling(63)
