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As defined earlier, atmospheric circulation is the movement of air around the surface of the Earth caused by the uneven heating of the Earth’s surface that upsets the equilibrium of the atmosphere, creates changes in air movement, and affects atmospheric pressure. Because the Earth has a curved surface that rotates on a tilted axis while orbiting the sun, the equatorial regions of the Earth receive a greater amount of heat from the sun than the polar regions. The amount of sun heating the Earth depends upon the time of day, time of year, and the latitude of the specific region. All of these factors affect the length of time and the angle at which sunlight strikes the surface.
In general atmospheric circulation theory, areas of low pressure exist over the equatorial regions, and areas of high pressure exist over the polar regions due to a difference in temperature. Solar heating causes air to become less dense and rise in equatorial areas. The resulting low pressure allows the high pressure air at the poles to flow along the planet’s surface toward the equator. As the warm air flows toward the poles, it cools, becoming more dense, and sinks back toward the surface. [Figure 4-9] This pattern of air circulation is correct in theory, but the circulation of air is modified by other forces.
front approaches, warm front weather prevails, but is immediately followed by cold front weather. There are two types of occluded fronts that can occur, and the temperatures of the colliding frontal systems play a large part in defining the type of front and the resulting weather. A cold front occlusion occurs when a fast-moving cold front is colder than the air ahead of the slow-moving warm front. When this occurs, the cold air replaces the cool air and forces the warm front aloft into the atmosphere. Typically, the cold front occlusion creates a mixture of weather found in both warm and cold fronts, if the air is relatively stable. A warm front occlusion occurs when the air ahead of the warm front is colder than the air of the cold front. When this is the case, the cold front rides up and over the warm front. If the air forced aloft by the warm front occlusion is unstable, the weather will be more severe than the weather found in a cold front occlusion. Embedded thunderstorms, rain, and fog are likely to occur.Surface Fronts
The air mass boundaries indicated on a surface weather map are called surface fronts. A surface front is the position of a front at the Earth’s surface. The weather map shows only the location of fronts on the surface, but these fronts also have vertical extent. For example, the colder, heavier air mass tends to flow under the warmer air mass. The underrunning mass produces the lifting action of warm air over cold air, causing clouds and associated frontal weather.
The vertical boundary between the warm and cold air masses is a frontal surface, and slopes upward over the colder air mass. The frontal surface lifts the warmer air mass and produces frontal cloud systems. The slope of the frontal surface varies with the speed of the moving cold air mass, and the roughness of the underlying terrain. Under normal conditions, the angle of inclination (slope ratio) between the frontal surface and the Earth’s surface is greater with cold fronts than with warm fronts. The approximate height of the frontal surface over any station is determined from the analysis of upper air observations.
Frontal passage (FROPA) affects ballooning activities because it can generate precipitation, wind shifts, significant changes in temperature, and many other conditions hazardous to ballooning. Balloon pilots usually do not fly in the face of an approaching front; in fact, many have a rule that they do not fly within 18 to 24 hours prior to frontal passage, particularly if the approaching front has any significant strength associated with it. The FSS often can advise of the time a cold front will pass a given reporting station, which assists in flight planning.
4-11
• Expands
• Decreases density• RisesAir Heated• Flows toward Earth• Flows back to equatorAir Cooled
Figure 4-9. General circulation theory.
Figure 4-10. Three cell circulation pattern caused by the rotation of the Earth.30° and 60° latitude, and between 60° and the poles. This circulation pattern results in the prevailing westerly winds in the conterminous United States.
Circulation patterns are further complicated by seasonal changes, differences between the surfaces of continents and oceans, and other factors such as frictional forces caused by the topography of the Earth’s surface which modify the movement of the air in the atmosphere. For example, within 2,000 feet of the ground, the friction between the surface and the atmosphere slows the moving air. The wind is diverted from its path because the frictional force reduces the Coriolis force. Thus, the wind direction at the surface varies somewhat from the wind direction just a few thousand feet above the Earth.Coriolis Force
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Balloon Flying Handbook(44)
