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have far exceeded the project planners expectations and caused a major bottleneck in the run up to
production.
Project Complexity
It is not our intention here to be overly critical of the aircraft industry, as the projects they undertake
are hugely complex. In order to grasp the complexity of the kind of programme outlined above it is
critical to realise that the teams involved in this process are spread around the globe. For example, on
the Boeing 777, a somewhat smaller and simpler project than the A380, 238 design and build teams
(DBTS) were located in over 6o different countries. 21 As a result these projects are battling issues of
time zones, culture and language, as well as tool interoperability and inherent design complexity.
With joint defence programmes like Eurofighter, the relevant governments frequently change their
requirements, creating a nightmare for the developers. But the technology is also inherently complex
with millions of components being integrated. On the A380 the notorious wiring issue relates to
530km of wire, with 100,000 separate strands and about 43,000 connectors. The design process is
therefore massively complex ,as the illustration from another aerospace project below reveals.
18 P. Lawrence and D. Thornton, Deep Stall, (Ashgate, Aldershot, 2005, ch. 8).
19 Sunday Business, (11 February, 2001, p. 23).
20 Aircraft also have to supported in-service for several decades after entry into service
21 T. Pinelli,. et. al, Knowledge Diffusion in the U.S. Aerospace Industry: the NASA/DoD Aerospace Knowledge
Diffusion Project, (Ablex Publishing, 1997).
Why Projects Fail
9
Figure 2 An Example of an Aerospace Project Network Containing Multiple Intersecting
Iterative Loops
In order to make projects of this complexity work effectively meticulous planning and work
scheduling is necessary, as well as highly skilled estimates of the scale and challenges of the work
itself. But as we shall see, this is precisely where projects break down.
Why Projects Miss Key Targets
Project planning can be defined as: ‘The mapping of future events to time to describe how, when, by
whom and what with a specific target, or set of targets, is to be achieved’.22 Such planning is critical to
successful projects and requires much interdisciplinary and concurrent working. Co-operation across
engineering teams and project managers is vital to the planning process. However, the authors’
observation of the aerospace industry revealed that there can be significant tensions and even cultural
differences between senior engineers and project managers. In order for any large project to be
successful serious and detailed resource planning is necessary, as well as analysis of dependencies and
work schedules. Yet we interviewed many engineers who construe the planning exercise as a costly
and burdensome overhead. Project mangers are oriented towards tight control and budgetary oversight
of the project, while engineers just want to get on and do the engineering and tend to see resource
constraints as the dire influence of corporate accounting. Thus getting the relevant individuals to cooperate
effectively at the start of projects is not always easy.
Rather to our surprise, we also found that much of the initial planning stage on projects is often done
as a paper and pencil exercise with paper post-it notes stuck on boards to denote initial guesses at
work allocation, sequencing and timings. In our opinion the fact that this key activity is done in this
manner says a good deal about how project managers rank the current tools that are available. In order
22 EU ESPRIT Renaissance Project @
//www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/projects/RenaissanceWeb/project/Documents/training/D335Prpl.ppt
Why Projects Fail
10
to effectively and accurately plan the resourcing, work breakdown and scheduling of projects the
lessons learned from precursor projects need to be adequately captured and diffused into the planning
process for the new project. This requires an intense effort by the senior engineers with relevant
project experience. But it also needs to be done in a team setting via a discursive process of discussion
and evaluation. As we have already observed, in engineering projects the design process is iterative.
Therefore a key question regarding resources is how many iterations a given design process will need.
This is now a highly complex question, as in some areas of design knowledge based engineering
(KBE) has massively accelerated the design process. KBE tools have design solutions and expert
judgement embedded in their software and thus they obviate much engineering trial and error. But on
an aircraft programme KBE is not available to designers across the board, meaning that the
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