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Section 19B Communication
19.3. Basics ............................................................................................................................. 364
Section 19C Refueling Tracks
19.4. Basics ............................................................................................................................. 364
Figure 19.1. Typical Linear Air Refueling Track............................................................................... 364
Figure 19.2. Typical Anchor Refueling Track.................................................................................... 365
Section 19D Rendezvous Procedures
19.5. Basics ............................................................................................................................. 365
Figure 19.3. Point Parallel Rendezvous.............................................................................................. 366
Figure 19.4. Point Parallel Rendezvous Tanker Orbit Area ............................................................... 366
19.6. Weather .......................................................................................................................... 367
19.7. Summary ........................................................................................................................ 367
Attachment 1—GLOSSARY OF REFERENCES AND SUPPORTING INFORMATION 368
Attachment 2—MATHEMATICAL FORMULAS 390
Attachment 3—CHARTS AND NAVIGATION SYMBOLS 399
Attachment 4—SUBJECT INDEX 400
AFPAM11-216 1 MARCH 2001 19
Chapter 1
MAPS AND CHARTS
Section 1A— Introduction
1.1. Navigation Publications. Aviators use air navigation to determine where they're going and how to
get there. This pamphlet serves as a reference for techniques and methods used in air navigation.
1.1.1. In addition to this pamphlet, several other sources provide excellent references to methods and
techniques of navigation. These sources include:
1.1.1.1. Journal of The Institute of Navigation. This journal is published quarterly by The Institute of
Navigation, 1800 Diagonal Road, Alexandria VA 22314, and covers the latest in navigation technology.
1.1.1.2. These United States Observatory and US Navy Oceanographic Office publications:
1.1.1.2.1. Air Almanac.
1.1.1.2.2. Nautical Almanac.
1.1.1.2.3. NV Pub 9 (Volumes 1 and 2), The American Practical Navigator.
1.1.1.2.4. SR Pub 249, Volumes 1 through 3, Sight Reduction Tables for Air Navigation.
1.1.1.3. Catalog, NIMA Public Sale Aeronautical Charts and Products, published by the National
Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA).
1.2. Basic Terms. Basic to the study of navigation is an understanding of certain terms which could be
called the dimensions of navigation. The navigator uses these dimensions of position, direction, distance,
altitude, and time as basic references. A clear understanding of these dimensions as they relate to
navigation is necessary to provide the navigator with a means of expressing and accomplishing the
practical aspects of air navigation. These terms are defined as follows:
1.2.1. Position. A point defined by stated or implied coordinates. Though frequently qualified by such
adjectives as estimated, dead reckoning (DR), no wind, and so forth, the word position always refers to
some place that can be identified. It is obvious that a navigator must know the aircraft's current position
before being able to direct the aircraft to another position or in another direction.
1.2.2. Direction. The position of one point in space relative to another without reference to the distance
between them. Direction is not in itself an angle, but it is often measured in terms of its angular distance
from a referenced direction.
1.2.3. Distance. The spatial separation between two points, measured by the length of a line joining
them. On a plane surface, this is a simple problem. However, consider distance on a sphere, where the
separation between points may be expressed as a variety of curves. It is essential that the navigator
20 AFPAM11-216 1 MARCH 2001
decide exactly how the distance is to be measured. The length of the line can be expressed in various
units; for example, nautical miles (NM) or yards.
1.2.4. Altitude. The height of an aircraft above a reference plane. Altitude can be measured as absolute
or pressure. Absolute altitude is measured by a radar altimeter, and pressure altitude is measured from
various datum planes. Compare with elevation, which is the height of a point or feature on the earth
above a reference plane.
1.2.5. Time. Defined in many ways, but definitions used in navigation consist mainly of: (l) the hour of
the day and (2) an elapsed interval.
1.2.6. Methods of Expression. The methods of expressing position, direction, distance, altitude, and
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