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AFPAM11-216 1 MARCH 2001 347
Chapter 17
LOW-LEVEL NAVIGATION
Section 17A— Introduction
17.1. Basics. The main reasons for conducting low-level operations are to gain the element of surprise,
to avoid detection or interception, and to minimize the effect of enemy defenses. Operations such as
personnel drops and aerial resupply missions demand a low-level capability. The problem of performing
accurate navigation at low altitudes differs considerably from that at higher altitudes. Low-level
navigation requires comprehensive flight planning, accurate dead reckoning (DR), and extensive use of
all available aids. You must work very rapidly to obtain and interpret in-flight observations. In general,
low altitude flying affects the navigation problem because of reduced radar and visual range, potential
adverse weather situations, and the need for reactive decision making. In addition, the normal mechanics
of navigation such as writing, computing, and plotting are made difficult or impossible by turbulence
encountered at low altitudes.
Section 17B— Planning the Mission
17.2. Basics. The key to successful low-level navigation is careful and comprehensive planning
accomplished prior to the flight. Every minute spent in flight planning helps to ensure the low-level
mission will be successful.
17.3. Route Determination. Carefully select the route with emphasis upon navigational checkpoints,
safety of flight, and possible threats. Turn points should be over or close to identifiable points, such as
those that provide good land-water contrast or give good radar definition at maximum range.
17.3.1. Directness. To conserve time and fuel, the route should be as direct as possible. A direct route
also minimizes the time spent within range of enemy defenses such as surface-to-air missiles or air-toair
interceptors.
17.3.2. Radius of Turn. Compute radius of turns for all turn points since the aircraft must roll out on
course (unless flying point to point). Remember that flying faster or slower than flight planned airspeed
will change your turn radius.
17.3.3. Altitude. Terrain elevation, both along the intended flight path and adjacent to it, is an extremely
important factor when planning mission altitudes. Normal altitudes for low-level combat missions are
between 100 and 500 feet above ground level. On domestic training missions, adhere to the flight rules
in FLIP.
17.3.4. Altimeter Errors. Two types of altimeter errors enter into consideration when planning a lowlevel
mission. They are caused by (1) differences in barometric pressure along the route of flight and (2)
known deficiencies in the altimeter. You can obtain reliable information along the route from the
forecaster during the weather briefing or from the Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC).
17.3.5. Airspeed. Normally, low-level missions are flight planned for airspeeds that make mental DR
computations simple. These are 240 knots (4 NM per minute), 300 knots (5 NM per minute), 360 knots
348 AFPAM11-216 1 MARCH 2001
(6 NM per minute), etc. While it is important to maintain a constant GS for accurate DR, you may have
to vary the GS to control the time of arrival at turn points and over the target.
17.3.6. Fuel Planning. Fuel consumption is a major consideration in low-level planning. Aircraft
consume more fuel at low altitude than they do at high altitude. Since combat sorties leave very small
fuel tolerances for recovery, carefully plan all phases to conserve fuel. The navigator usually assists the
pilot by closely monitoring fuel quantities. The fuel consumption problem is further complicated by the
variable load requirements for specific missions.
17.3.7. Threats. Plot any known threats and their tactical ranges. Avoid threats to the maximum extent
possible by flying around them. If unable to avoid threats, use terrain masking to reduce the effective
range. If it's impossible to avoid the threat, request threat suppression or reevaluate the mission.
17.3.8. Weather Planning. On combat missions, there is no designated minimum ceiling and visibility
condition for low-level flight. The wind velocities encountered at low altitude over land are generally
light. However, because of surface friction, particularly in rugged terrain, these winds tend to be very
volatile.
17.3.8.1. Because of this inconsistency and for reasons of simplicity, low-level flight planning is
normally based on no-wind conditions.
17.3.8.2. In planning low-level missions over water, spin a wind corrected flight plan for greatest
accuracy. Overwater navigation depends entirely on DR and computer and/or GPS systems because of
the absence of checkpoints with which to establish fixes and to make course corrections.
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