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• Monitor each other’s behaviour
Situation Awareness The degree to which the
team maintains an accurate
and predictive perception
of the external
environment.
• Identify problems
• Detect situations that require
corrective action.
• Provide updates of where team is
in relation to achieving goals
• Identify impediments to goal
attainment.
• Provide important information
prior to request
• Anticipate changes in the
situation
• Anticipate needs of other team
members
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Leadership The degree to which a team
member directs and
coordinates the activities of
other team members and
monitors team
performance. If there is
clear delineation of task
duties before task,
leadership is spread
throughout the crew and is
not limited to a formal
leader.
• Specify task to be assigned
• Ask for input in plans/decision
• Focus team attention on current
task
• Provide feedback to team
• Explain to others what is
required
• Listens to concerns
Communication The degree to which the
team clearly and accurately
sends and acknowledges
information, instructions,
or commands.
• Use standard terminology
• Acknowledge communication by
others
• Verify information
• Provide information when
requested
• Repeat vital information
4.2 Relationship with Performance
A wealth of research has demonstrated that these factors are correlated with
performance. It is beyond the scope of this report to provide a detailed summary of
the literature on correlates of team performance. Instead, the following is a sample of
the findings, while the reader is referred to the literature for greater detail (Brannick,
Prince, Prince & Salas, 1995; Cannon-Bowers & Salas, 1998; Entin, & Serfaty, 1999;
Orasanu & Salas, 1993; Serfaty, & Entin, 1997; Serfaty, Entin & Deckert, 1994; Stout,
Cannon-Bowers, Salas, & Milanovich, 1999).
In high workload situations, more effective teams adopt communication and
coordination strategies that reduce the effort needed to meet task demands while
maintaining performance levels (Entin, & Serfaty, 1999). Orasanu and Salas (1993)
found that the conversations of effective teams were characterised by a high level of
homogeneity. The team members adopted conventionalised speech patterns that
appeared to facilitate coordination. Low performing teams had speech patterns that
were heterogeneous and less predictable. This created more work when the task
required interaction.
In high stress situations, effective crews are also more explicit in defining the
problem, articulating plans and strategies for coping, obtaining relevant information,
explaining the rationale, and allocating and coordinating responsibilities among the
crew. The suggestion is that teams build a shared mental model (SMM) of the
situation. In terms of mission analysis, more effective teams have been observed to
engage in more planning types of behaviour than less effective teams. In more
effective teams, the leader uses low workload periods in the mission to make plans.
This helps to build the SMM, and to allow commands to take on contextual meaning
(Stout, Cannon-Bowers, Salas, & Milanovich, 1999). More effective teams also have
SMMs for the majority of key taskwork knowledge areas. In addition, they have
higher consensus levels for critical teamwork constructs (Pascual, 1999).
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18
Teams that rely solely on implicit coordination are overwhelmed by problems during
crisis situations (Orasanu & Salas, 1993). Team effectiveness appears to be enhanced
when team members provide information before they are requested to do so.
Providing information in advance appears to be particularly beneficial in situations
characterised by increased workload (Stout, Cannon-Bowers, Salas, & Milanovich,
1999). The strategy of anticipating changes in the situation and needs of other team
members contributes significantly to the team’s effective performance under stress,
and appears to be the reason such teams perform consistently better under a range of
tactical conditions (Serfaty, & Entin, 1997).
A further demonstration of the importance of communication and coordination is
that error often occurs as a consequence of staff shift rotation. Critical pieces of
information, key operational assumptions, cognitive focus, and shared situation
awareness can all be lost or misinterpreted in the hand-over process. To be effective,
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