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available information was considered to be the critical factor. This information
included the fact that the team was under pressure to avoid the fate of the USS Stark
(in 1987, two Iraqi Exocet missiles hit the Stark, killing 37 crew). In addition, the ship
was under surface attack when the Airbus appeared on radar. These data were used
to support the team’s expectancy at the expense of ignoring contrary evidence
(Gregory & Kelly, 1998).
This suggests that the human interpretation of the data on the USS Vincennes was a
greater determinant of decision making than the data alone. The U.S. Government
considered the human factor to be so crucial, they funded the Tactical Decision
Making Under Stress project (TADMUS). This project started in 1990 and was still
continuing in 1999. It was an interdisciplinary program involving the development
of both training and human factor technologies (Collyer & Malecki, 1998). The aim
was to enhance the quality of tactical decision making, particularly in relation to the
effect of information presentation on military teams. This project is just one example
of the fact that team performance is considered to be of such importance that the U.S.
military invests more in team research than any other entity (Cannon-Bowers &
Salas, 1998).
1.2 Towards a Research Methodology in Army C2
Despite this focus in the U.S., there has been a relatively low level of empirical
research on C2 team performance in an Australian context. However, the Australian
Army is currently introducing information technology to C2 operations by installing
Battlefield Command Support Systems (BCSS) into the numerous Brigades (Bde). As
DSTO-TR-1034
2
a consequence, there is a high degree of urgency in developing an increased
understanding of this domain. The introduction of digitised systems into what has
previously been a completely manual process has the potential for significant impact.
Research in the U.S. and the U.K. has already shown that assumptions that
digitisation will improve performance may be faulty. For example, a study by
Bowers, Thornton, Braun, Morgan, and Salas (1998) found that automating certain
tasks was associated with improved system performance on only 1 in 4 measures.
Given the increasing emphasis on digital systems, it is important that research be
conducted that will assess the impact on the performance of the C2 team. To date,
Human Factors research on the effectiveness of BCSS has attempted to assess the
impact of digitisation by asking the user what they think of the system. As noted by
Klein (1993), a common mistake that system developers make is to ask users about
the effectiveness of the system, without conducting empirical evaluation. While a
great deal of insight may be gleaned from such a process (eg. attitudes to the system),
it does not provide information on actual team performance. An alternative
approach is for analysts to examine the impact of the system on the performance of
the team.
In summary, a consequence of the introduction of digitised systems, and of the
minimal empirical research to date, is a requirement for research that investigates
and establishes techniques for analysing team tasks. In particular, techniques are
required to identify and delineate the teamwork knowledge, skills, and attitudes
(KSAs). In addition, there is also a need for research on team cognition. As noted by
Cannon-Bowers and Salas (1998), the increase in information technology and
consequent increase in tasks with high cognitive demands, means that shared
knowledge will become an ever-increasing critical factor in team performance. An
aim of the current report is to refine potential methodologies that can be used to
examine the impact of digitised command support tools on Army C2 teams. In
particular, there will be a focus on adapting research methodologies developed by
TADMUS researchers for use with Australian Army C2. The advantage of these
methods is that they are already standardised, and have clearly demonstrated
reliability and validity.
1.3 Defining the Team Performance
In order to determine what data collection techniques we should be using, it is
important to clarify what is meant by team performance. Two categories of
behaviour can be distinguished in a team: a taskwork track and a teamwork track
(Gregory & Kelly, 1998). Taskwork consists of behaviours that are performed by
team members, and are critical to the execution of team member functions.
Teamwork, in contrast, consists of behaviours that are related to team member
interactions, and are necessary to establish coordination among the team members to
achieve team goals (Salas, Prince, Baker, & Shrestha, 1995). McIntyre and Salas (1995)
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