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define taskwork as the “technical aspects of the team operations” and teamwork as
“all the interactive behaviours among the team members”.
These two aspects of working within a team are influenced by different factors, yet
both contribute to effective performance. Research has shown that while individual
competency is necessary, it is not sufficient for successful team performance (Stout,
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Salas & Carson, 1994). These findings point to the importance of evaluating the team
interactions that occur, as well as assessing an individual’s ability to do their job.
What must also be kept in mind is the primary task of the C2 team: That is, to assist
the commander in the decision making process (Orasanu & Salas, 1993). While battle
command responsibility is focused on the commander, command itself is a process
conducted by an organisation (Leedom, 1999). In other words, the HQ is composed
of a distributed decision making team, and is part of a complex sociotechnical system
(Vicente, 1999). Thus, to assess command system performance and effectiveness, it is
necessary to understand it as an organisational process that involves the complex
interaction of cognitive, technological, and social factors (Leedom, 1999). In addition,
because military teams operate in a complex and dynamic environment, a host of
other factors influence the quality of behaviour and performance (eg. ambiguous
goals and information, high time and risk states, and unstructured problems)
(Pascual, 1999). A consequence is that in such a complex system, there is no one
definitive method of assessing HQ performance. Each approach assesses one
particular aspect of the HQ operation. For example, results of wargame simulations
assess overall task effectiveness but do not provide insight as to information
requirements within the HQ. Hence, multiple measures need to be used to build up a
picture of the overall performance. A composite approach to evaluating HQ is
required.
The measures used to evaluate performance also need to be grounded in the aim of
the investigation. That is, the aims of the research underpin the measures used to
establish it. For example, a training needs analysis requires different information
compared to an individual skills examination.
There are several different methods of measuring both taskwork and teamwork.
These include:
• Objective methods: These are used to collect empirical data on the information
flow among the team, the team dynamics, and the task characteristics.
Observational techniques, such as behavioural and task load checklists, are used
to formalise the process of data collection.
• Subjective methods: These provide the individual’s perceptions of teamwork and
task characteristics, using questionnaires and structured interviews. This type of
data provides useful insights into the individual’s perception of changes to their
environment (eg. the introduction of BCSS). It is also useful for identifying
possible barriers to introducing changes to the system.
• Outcome measures: These include results of wargame simulations (eg. the
number of enemy, friendly and civilian casualties, time taken to complete the
mission, etc). They provide an objective measure of performance that can be
empirically linked to the observations and subjective data.
1.4 Observational Methods
The development of objective observational techniques that can be used to collect
data on team and task behaviour is the main focus of this report. To date,
behavioural observations conducted by DSTO analysts have tended to be informal.
For example, analysts observe an exercise, making informal notes of what are
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believed to be the salient characteristics. This approach has strong value in
generating insights and lessons learned. However, it does not allow the collection of
formal data on team processes after the introduction of systems such as BCSS. More
importantly, informal observation does not provide implications for design
principles that can be incorporated into future systems.
In contrast to this approach (and to the collection of subjective data via the use of
such methods as questionnaires, Structured Interviews and After Action Reviews),
formally observing and categorising behaviour allows analysis of what is happening
and in what sequence. Observing provides information on what actually happens
rather than relying on the subject’s perception of what was occurring. This is an
important distinction when the aim is to examine team processes and inform future
design processes for command support tools. While an individual’s subjective
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