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and height of the echo top of precipitation. [Figure 9-
51] If the base of the precipitation is considered significant,
it is also included in the report. All heights are
reported in hundreds of feet MSL.
PRINTED FORECASTS
Everyday, National Weather Service Offices prepare a
variety of forecasts using past weather observations
and computer modeling. Weather specialists develop
printed forecasts for more than 2,000 forecasts for airports,
over 900 route forecasts, which are intended for
flight planning purposes. The printed forecasts pilots
need to become familiar with include the aviation terminal
forecast, aviation area forecast, and the winds
and temperatures aloft forecast.
Pilot Weather Report = Space Symbol
3-Letter SA Identifier 1. UA UUA
Routine
Report
Urgent
Report
2. /OV
Location:
In relation to a NAVAID
3. /TM Time:
Coordinated Universal Time
4. /FL
Altitude/Flight Level:
Essential for turbulence and icing reports
5. /TP
Aircraft Type:
Essential for turbulence and icing reports
Items 1 through 5 are mandatory for all PIREPs
6. /SK
Sky Cover:
Cloud height and coverage (scattered, broken,
or overcast)
7. /WX
Flight Visibility and Weather:
Flight visibility, precipitation, restrictions to
visibility, etc.
8. /TA
Temperature (Celsius):
Essential for icing reports
9. /WV
Wind:
Direction in degrees and speed in knots
10. /TB
Turbulence:
Turbulence intensity, whether the turbulence
occurred in or near clouds, and duration of
turbulence
11. /IC
Icing:
Intensity and Type
12. /RM
Remarks:
For reporting elements not included or to clarify
previously reported items
PIREP FORM
Figure 9-49. PIREP Form.
METAR KLAX 140651Z AUTO 14021G29KT 1SM R35L/4500V6000FT -RA BR BKN030
10/10 A2990 RMK AO2
Type of
Report
Station
Identifier
Time of
Report
Wind
Modifier Information Visibility Weather
Temperature/
Dewpoint
Altimeter Remarks
Figure 9-48.Typical Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) as generated in the United States.
9-35
TERMINAL AERODROME FORECAST
The terminal aerodrome forecast (TAF) is derived from
weather data and observations at a specific airport. It is
a concise statement of expected weather conditions
within a five statute mile radius of the center of the airport’s
runway complex. Normally valid for a 24-hour
period, TAFs are scheduled for dissemination four
times a day at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, and 1800Z. Each
TAF contains the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) station identifier, time and date
of issuance, valid period, and the body of the forecast.
With a few exceptions, the coding used in a TAF is
similar to that found in a METAR.
The TAF for Pierre, South Dakota [Figure 9-52] was
issued on the eleventh day of the month at 1140Z. This
TAF is valid from 1200Z to 1200Z on the 11-day of the
month. The first three digits of the surface wind forecast
indicate direction and the following two indicate
speed in knots (KT). In this case, the winds are 130° at
12 knots. P6SM indicates the visibility is forecast to be
greater than 6 statute miles. BKN100 forecasts a broken
layer of clouds at 10,000 feet AGL. The temporary
(TEMPO) change group is used when fluctuations of
Above SD report decoded as follows:
1. Location identifier and time of radar observation (Oklahoma City SD at 1935 UTC).
2. Echo pattern (LN in this example). The echo pattern or configuration may be one of the following:
a. Line (LN) is a line of convective echoes with precipitation intensi ties that are heavy or greater, at least 30 miles
long, at least 4 times as long as it is wide, and at least 25% coverage within the line.
b. Area (AREA) is a group of echoes of similar type and not classified as a line.
c. Cell (CELL) is a single isolated convective echo such as a rain shower.
3. Coverage, in tenths, of precipitation in the defined area (8/10 in this example).
4. Type and intensity of weather (thunderstorm [T] with very heavy rainshowers [RW++]).
5. Azimuth, referenced to true north, and range, in nautical miles (NM) from the radar site, of points defining the echo
pattern (86/40 164/60 in this echo). For lines and areas, there will be two azimuth and range sets that define the
pattern. For cells, there will be only one azimuth and range set. (See the examples that follow for elaboration of
echo patterns.)
6. Dimension of echo pattern (20 NM wide in this example). The dimension of an echo pattern is given when azimuth
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