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and/or Pilot’s Operating Handbook (AFM/POH). The
following guidelines are generic and are not meant to
replace the airplane manufacturer’s recommended
procedures. Rather, they are meant to enhance the
pilot’s general knowledge in the area of non-normal and
emergency operations. If any of the guidance in this
chapter conflicts in any way with the manufacturer’s
recommended procedures for a particular make and
model airplane, the manufacturer’s recommended
procedures take precedence.
EMERGENCY LANDINGS
This section contains information on emergency landing
techniques in small fixed-wing airplanes. The
guidelines that are presented apply to the more adverse
terrain conditions for which no practical training is
possible. The objective is to instill in the pilot the
knowledge that almost any terrain can be considered
“suitable” for a survivable crash landing if the pilot
knows how to use the airplane structure for self-protection
and the protection of passengers.
TYPES OF EMERGENCY LANDINGS
The different types of emergency landings are defined
as follows.
• Forced landing. An immediate landing, on or off
an airport, necessitated by the inability to continue
further flight. Atypical example of which is
an airplane forced down by engine failure.
• Precautionary landing. A premeditated landing,
on or off an airport, when further flight is possible
but inadvisable. Examples of conditions that
may call for a precautionary landing include
deteriorating weather, being lost, fuel shortage,
and gradually developing engine trouble.
• Ditching. A forced or precautionary landing on
water.
A precautionary landing, generally, is less hazardous
than a forced landing because the pilot has more time
for terrain selection and the planning of the approach.
In addition, the pilot can use power to compensate for
errors in judgment or technique. The pilot should be
aware that too many situations calling for a precautionary
landing are allowed to develop into immediate
forced landings, when the pilot uses wishful thinking
instead of reason, especially when dealing with a
self-inflicted predicament. The non-instrument rated
pilot trapped by weather, or the pilot facing imminent
fuel exhaustion who does not give any thought to the
feasibility of a precautionary landing accepts an
extremely hazardous alternative.
PSYCHOLOGICAL HAZARDS
There are several factors that may interfere with a
pilot’s ability to act promptly and properly when faced
with an emergency.
• Reluctance to accept the emergency situation.
A pilot who allows the mind to become paralyzed
at the thought that the airplane will be on the
ground, in a very short time, regardless of the
pilot’s actions or hopes, is severely handicapped
in the handling of the emergency. An unconscious
desire to delay the dreaded moment may lead to
such errors as: failure to lower the nose to maintain
flying speed, delay in the selection of the
most suitable landing area within reach, and
indecision in general. Desperate attempts to
correct whatever went wrong, at the expense of
airplane control, fall into the same category.
• Desire to save the airplane. The pilot who has
been conditioned during training to expect to find
a relatively safe landing area, whenever the flight
instructor closed the throttle for a simulated
forced landing, may ignore all basic rules of
airmanship to avoid a touchdown in terrain where
airplane damage is unavoidable. Typical consequences
are: making a 180° turn back to the
runway when available altitude is insufficient;
stretching the glide without regard for minimum
control speed in order to reach a more appealing
field; accepting an approach and touchdown
situation that leaves no margin for error. The
desire to save the airplane, regardless of the risks
involved, may be influenced by two other factors:
the pilot’s financial stake in the airplane and the
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certainty that an undamaged airplane implies no
bodily harm. There are times, however, when a
pilot should be more interested in sacrificing the
airplane so that the occupants can safely walk
away from it.
• Undue concern about getting hurt. Fear is a
vital part of the self-preservation mechanism.
However, when fear leads to panic, we invite that
which we want most to avoid. The survival
records favor pilots who maintain their composure
and know how to apply the general concepts
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