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model used was O’Hare’s adapted version of Rasmussen’s taxonomic algorithm for classifying
information processing failures. The third model used was Reason’s approach to classification of
active failures. It was found that the naval aviation accident database could be reorganized with a
large degree of success into the three taxonomies of human error. It is also noted that a general
trend was found. Accidents were primarily associated with procedural and response-execution
errors as well as mistakes. The four stage information processing model accounted for slightly
less pilot-causal factors than did the other two models.
48
Wiegmann, D. A., & Shappell, S. A. (1999). A human factors approach to accident analysis
and prevention. (Workshop Manual from the 43rd Human Factors and Ergonomics Society
Conference).
This paper is an expansion of the framework given in Shappell and Wiegmann’s (1997) paper.
The only difference is that organizational factors are considered and added into the framework.
Three categories of organizational influences exist. Resource management refers to the
management, allocation, and maintenance of organizational resources. Examples of these include
human resources, monetary resources, and equipment/facility resources. Organizational climate
considers the prevailing attitudes and atmosphere in an organization. Important aspects of this
category include the structure, policies, and culture of the organization. Operational process is
the final category and is defined as the formal process by which things get done in an
organization. Parts to this category include operations, procedures and oversights in the
organization.
Williams, J. C. (1988). A data-based method for assessing and reducing human error to
improve operational performance. Conference record for 1988 IEEE Fourth Conference
on Human Factors and Power Plants (pp. 436-450). New York, NY: Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers.
The HEART method (Human Error Assessment and Reduction Technique) is used to explore the
identities and magnitudes of error-producing factors and provides defensive measures to combat
their effects. The HEART method is based on three premises. First, basic human reliability is
dependent upon the generic nature of the task to be performed. Second, given “perfect”
conditions, this level of reliability will tend to be achieved consistently with a given nominal
likelihood within probabilistic limits. And finally, given that these perfect conditions do not exist
in all circumstances, the human reliability predicted may be expected to degrade as a function of
the extent to which identified error-producing conditions might apply. The HEART methodology
concentrates on the additive nature of error-producing conditions found in practice, and assumes
that factorial degradation of performance through multiple error-producing conditions is a much
more likely outcome.
Woods, D. D., Pople, H. E., & Roth, E. M. (1990). The cognitive environment simulation as
a tool for modeling human performance and reliability (NUREG/CR-5213). Pittsburgh,
PA: Westinghouse Science and Technology Center.
A tool called the Cognitive Environment Simulation (CES) was developed for simulating how
people form intentions to act in nuclear power plant personnel emergencies. A methodology
called Cognitive Reliability Assessment Technique (CREATE) was developed to describe how
CES can be used to provide input to human reliability analyses in probabilistic risk assessment
studies. CES/CREATE was evaluated in three separate workshops and was shown to work in the
tested scenarios. CES can be used to provide an objective means of distinguishing which event
scenarios are likely to be straightforward to diagnose and which scenarios are likely to be
cognitively challenging, requiring longer to diagnose and which can lead to human error.
49
Wreathall, J. (1994). Human errors in dynamic process system. In T. Aldemir (Eds.),
Reliability and safety assessment of dynamic process systems (pp. 179-189). New York:
Springer.
The author reviews the nature of human errors and the way they interact with systems in
dynamic processes. A framework of accident causation is presented that is heavily based on
Reason’s model. The important features of the model are organizational processes, errorproducing
conditions, unsafe acts, defenses against unsafe acts, latent failures, and the accident
itself. Unsafe acts can be separated into different categories. There are errors of commission and
omission. There are active and latent errors. There are also slips/lapses, mistakes, and
circumventions.
Wreathall, J., Luckas, W. J., & Thompson, C. M. (1996). Use of a multidisciplinary
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