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information can be obtained from the database. ASRS analysts choose appropriate fields to code
each report for the database. Eleven general categories are suggested to the ASRS analysts for
classification.
(1) Affective or cognitive states—attitude, complacency, fatigue, etc.
(2) Capability—inadequate certification, unfamiliar with operation, etc.
(3) Circumstances affecting human performance—equipment design, noise, workload, etc.
(4) Distraction—checklist, radio communication, socializing, etc.
(5) Inadequate briefing—cockpit, preflight, etc.
(6) Inadequate planning—inflight, preflight, other
(7) Inadequate technique—air traffic control, communication, flying, etc.
(8) Misread—chart, instrument, publication
(9) Non adherence to—clearance, instruction publication
(10) Other behaviors or non-behaviors—altitude callout omitted, perception problem, etc.
(11) Physical state—hypoxia, illness, incapacitation, etc.
32
National Transportation Safety Board. (1992). Human performance investigation
procedures (vol. III) [manual]. Washington, DC: Author.
The NTSB’s human performance investigation procedure is explained. The NTSB seeks to
examine six human performance factors within their investigations. These are behavioral factors,
medical factors, operational factors, task factors, equipment design factors, and environmental
factors. Examples of actual checklists used to examine these factors in accidents are included in
this manual.
Navarro, C. (1989). A method of studying errors in flight crew communication. Perceptual
and Motor Skills, 69, 719-722.
A method is described which uses the information processing paradigm to study errors in flight
crew communication. The taxonomy of errors proposed is based on two dimensions. In the first
dimension, an evaluation of the type of communication errors is made. These can be classified as
having to do with transmission, detection, identification, interpretation, and action linked to
communication. The second dimension evaluates the type of adjustment made. For individuals,
this concerns problem-solving by the operator. For interactive environments, this involves
problem-solving by a crew. The taxonomy specifically includes transmission of a message,
detection of a message, identification of a message, interpretation of a message, and action taken
in regards to the message.
Nawrocki, L. H., Strub, M. H., & Cecil, R. M. (1973). Error categorization and analysis in
man-computer communication systems. IEEE Transactions on Reliability, R-22(3), 135-
140.
The authors examine traditional approaches to human reliability and a new technique is
presented which permits the system designer to derive a mutually exclusive and exhaustive set of
operator error categories in a man-computer system. Error categories are defined in terms of
process failures and provide a qualitative index suitable for determining error causes and
consequences. The new index is tested on a set of data. From this, it is determined that the new
methodology offers a designer a systematic means for deriving error categories which appear to
be acceptable for systems in which the operator must transform and input data, such as in
information reduction tasks.
33
Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall Inc.
The authors define a human information processing system in terms of symbols. Eight important
characteristics of a human information processing system are discussed in relation to problem
solving tasks. The system contains an active processor, input and output systems, long-term
memory, short-term memory and external memory. Long-term memory has unlimited capacity
and is organized associatively, with its contents being symbols and structures of symbols. Shortterm
memory holds about 5 to 7 symbols. Sensory modalities, processes, and motor patterns are
symbolized and handled identically in short-term memory and long-term memory. Overall
processing rates are limited by read rates from long-term and extended memory. Extended
memory is defined as the immediately available visual field. The information processing
system’s program is structured as a production system, the condition for evocation of a
production being the presence of appropriate symbols in the short-term memory augmented by
the foveal extended memory. A final important characteristic of the system is that a class of
symbol structures or goal structures are used to organize problem solving.
Norman, D. A. (1981). Categorization of action slips. Psychological Review, 88(1), 1-15.
The author concentrates on action errors in regards to slips. Three major categories of slips are
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