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lead to clues that help identify SNEAK conditions.
Hansen, C. P. (1989). A causal model of the relationship among accidents, biodata,
personality, and cognitive factors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74(1), 81-90.
Data from chemical industry workers were gathered to construct and test a causal model of the
accident process. The authors believe that social maladjustment traits, some characteristics of
neurosis, cognitive ability, employee age, and job experience would have an effect on accident
causation. An accident model path diagram is presented that considers variables from numerous
tests, scales and traits. These include the Bennett mechanical comprehension test, the Wonderlic
personnel test, an employee’s age, general social maladjustment scale, the distractibility scale,
job experience, involvement in counseling, accident risk, and accident consistency. The model
can be used to predict with some degree of accuracy the likelihood an employee has of getting
into an accident. This is accomplished through tests on the employee and employee data.
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Harle, P. G. (1994). Investigation of human factors: The link to accident prevention. In N.
McDonald & R. Fuller (Eds.), Aviation psychology in practice (pp.127-148). Brookfield,
VT: Ashgate.
A general theme the author presents is that humans are the source of accidents, but they are also
the key to accident prevention. James Reason’s model of accident causation is examined as a
systems approach to accident causation. A step by step description of how investigations of
incidents should occur is given. It is first stressed that an investigator does not need to be a
specialist in the domain of the accident. A generalist investigator is usually well-suited.
Information needs to be collected that helps determine what happened and why it happened. The
SHEL model is useful for this type of data collection task. The SHEL model examines liveware,
software, hardware and environment of systems. Information is considered relevant and
necessary to obtain if it helps to explain why an accident or incident occurred. Two sources for
information are from primary sources and secondary sources. Primary sources include physical
equipment, documentation, audio/flight recorder tapes, etc. Secondary sources include
occurrence databases, technical literature and human factors professionals/specialists. A
framework for analyzing the occurrence data should then be used that leads to safety action as
the principal output. A human factors report of the incident/accident then needs to be written that
identifies the hazards uncovered and give safety recommendations. Finally, follow-up actions to
prevent the identified hazards needs to be taken.
Hawkins, F.H. (1997). Human error. In Human Factors in Flight, (pp. 27-56). Brookfield,
VT: Avebury Aviation.
Human error is examined in the context of aviation. Three basic tenets of human error are
developed and discussed. The first is that the origins of errors can be fundamentally different.
The second is that anyone can and will make errors. The third is that consequences of similar
errors can be quite different. From here, four different categories are used to make a
classification system for errors.
(1) Design-induced versus operator-induced
(2) Errors are either random, systematic, or sporadic
(3) Errors can be an omission, a commission, or a substitution
(4) Errors can be reversible or irreversible
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Heinrich, H. W., Petersen, D., & Roos, N. (1980). Industrial accident prevention: A safety
management approach (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
A basic philosophy of safety management and techniques of accident prevention are examined.
Accident prevention is accomplished through five separate steps, all built on a foundation of
basic philosophy of accident occurrence and prevention. The first step is organization. The
second step is fact finding. The third step is analysis. The fourth step is selection of a remedy.
The fifth step is the application of the remedy. The authors go on to describe and analyze an
updated model of accident prevention. Parts to the model include basic personal philosophies of
accident occurrence and prevention, fundamental approaches to accident prevention, collecting
data, analyzing data, selecting a remedy, applying the remedy, monitoring, and considering longterm
and short-term problems and safety programming. From here, a multitude of accident
sequence and causation models are examined and explained in terms of their usefulness.
Heinrich’s influential domino theory of accident causation is then proposed. An important
hypothesis put forth is that unsafe acts are the reason most accidents occur, not because of unsafe
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