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errors, in time. At each branching point of the HITLINE, mapping rules are used to relate
performance influencing factors with errors. A quantification scheme is used to assign weights at
each of the branching points. A sample exercise is performed using the methodology and is
validated in terms of the current PRA framework.
Mangold, S. J., & Eldredge, D. (1993). An approach to modeling pilot memory and
developing a taxonomy of memory errors. In R. S. Jensen & D. Neumeister (Eds.),
Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (263-268).
Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University.
A review of the methodology used to develop a memory-related taxonomy of memory errors in
pilots is performed. It is based on the connectionist approach of cognitive functioning. Five
categories of memory-related key terms were developed. The key words reflect the types of
breakdowns that can occur in the memory process. The first category is information encoding
errors. These are defined as failures to encode relevant information so that it can be accessed at a
later time. The second category is meaning structure errors. These are memory errors that come
from problems with representational structures. Processing competition errors is a third category.
These errors have to do with the cognitive system being busy with one task and failing to
adequately manage a second task. A fourth category is information retrieval errors. These are
described as failures to achieve the same cognitive state at information retrieval as was present
when the information was encoded. The final category is artifact-induced errors. These errors
come as a result of the complex demands of the advanced automation cockpit.
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Marteniuk, R. G. (1976). Information processing in motor skills. New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston.
This book presents an information processing model. The basic human performance model
discussed has three major mechanisms that mediate information in the environment and
movement. The perceptual mechanism is the first one described. This mechanism receives
environmental information from the senses. Perception is argued to have three general classes of
processes. These are sensory capacities, information selection and prediction, and memory. The
second mechanism is the decision mechanism. This mechanism deals with deciding on a plan of
action for the current information that is available. The third mechanism is the effector
mechanism. This mechanism organizes a response and activates the motor commands to the
muscular system. It is emphasized that feedback information is an important part of the model
which allows correction in the effector mechanism if there is enough time. Memory also plays a
crucial role in the model and has implications for and causes interactions with the perceptual,
decision, and effector mechanism. Two types of skills are identified that can be analyzed using
the model. Open skills occur in environments where the conditions under which the skill is
performed are continually changing in space. This causes increased time pressure and stress.
Closed skills occur in environments where the critical cues for the performance of that skill were
static or fixed in one position.
Maurino, D. E., Reason, J., Johnston, N. & Lee, R. B. (1995). Widening the search for
accidental causes: A theoretical framework. In Beyond aviation human factors: Safety in
high technology systems (pp. 1-30). Vermont: Ashgate.
This chapter tries to outline a theoretical framework that seeks to provide a principled basis both
for understanding the causes of organizational accidents and for creating a practical remedial
toolbag that will minimize their occurrence. The framework traces the development of an
accident sequence. It considers organizational and managerial decisions, conditions in various
workplaces, and personal and situational factors that lead to errors and violations. Active and
latent failure pathways to an event are identified. Events are defined as the breaching, absence or
bypassing of some or all of the system’s various defenses and safeguards. Within the framework,
organizational pathogens are introduced into a system where they follow two main pathways to
the workplace. In the first pathway the pathogens act upon the defenses, barriers and safeguards
to create latent failures. In the second pathway the pathogens act upon local working conditions
to promote active failures.
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McCoy, W. E., III, & Funk, K. H., II. (1991). Taxonomy of ATC operator errors based on a
model of human information processing. Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium
on Aviation Psychology (pp. 532-537). Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University, The
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