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operations, estimate the relevant error probabilities, estimate the effects of human errors on the
system failure events, and recommend changes to the system and recalculate the system failure
probabilities. THERP is interested in evaluating task reliability, error correction, task effects, and
the importance of effects. Probability tree diagrams are the basic tools of THERP.
Tarrants, W. E. (1965, May). Applying measurement concepts to the appraisal of safety
performance. Journal of ASSE, 15-22.
The author addresses the issue of non-injurious accidents, or near misses, as an important basis
for an accident prevention program designed to remove those causes before more severe
accidents can occur. The Critical Incident Technique is presented and explained to deal with
these near misses. The Critical Incident Technique is a method that identifies errors and unsafe
conditions which contribute to accidents within a given population by means of a stratified
random sample of participant-observers selected from within this population. Interviews with
people whose jobs are being studied are performed to reveal unsafe errors, conditions and other
critical incidents. The incidents are classified into hazard categories from which accident
problem areas are defined. Accident prevention programs are then designed to deal with the
critical incidents. The technique is reapplied periodically to detect new problem areas and to
measure effectiveness of the accident prevention program that was designed. The technique of
behavior sampling is also reviewed as an accident measure. The technique is concerned with the
acts a person is engaged in at the moment of an accident.
Van Eekhout, J. M., & Rouse, W. B. (1981). Human errors in detection, diagnosis, and
compensation for failures in the engine control room of a supertanker. IEEE Transactions
on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, SMC-11(12), 813-816.
An error classification system is presented in a marine context that is an extension of
Rasmussen’s scheme of classifying human errors in nuclear power plant operations. The general
categories of error in the classification system are observation of the system state, identification
of a fault, choice of the goal, choice of the procedure, and execution of the procedure. A study
was conducted on crews of professional engineering officers to see how they could perform the
task of coping with failures in a high-fidelity supertanker engine control room simulator. Two
important conclusions were made. First, human factors design inadequacies and fidelity
problems lead to human errors. Second, a lack of knowledge of the functioning of the basic
system as well as automatic controllers is highly correlated with errors in identifying failures.
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Wickens, C. D. & Hollands J. G. (2000). Engineering psychology and human performance
(3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
The information processing model is a framework that is broken down into a series of stages and
feedback loops. Sensory processing is the first stage. Information from the environment gains
access to the brain. Sensory systems each have their own short-term sensory store. Perception is
the second stage. Raw sensory data is transmitted to the brain and is interpreted and given
meaning. Perception is automatic and occurs rapidly. It relies on both bottom-up processing and
top-down processing. Cognition and memory is another stage in the model. Working memory is
part of this stage. This stage is characterized by conscious activities which transform or retain
information and are resource limited. From here, some information is transferred to long-term
memory. The next two stages are response selection and response execution. Feedback loops are
important and necessary for monitoring progress to see if a task was completed. Attention is
another important aspect of the model. Attention is a limited resource that can be selectively
allocated to the desired channels. Attention can also be divided between different tasks and
mental operations. This model can be used to describe human error as occurring in different
stages of the model. Mistakes (knowledge and rule based) can arise from problems in perception,
memory, and cognition. Slips occur during action execution. Lapses and mode errors are related
to memory failures.
Wiegmann, D. A. & Shappell, S. A. (1997). Human factors analysis of postaccident data:
Applying theoretical taxonomies of human error. International Journal of Aviation
Psychology,7(1), 67-81.
Three conceptual models of information processing and human error are examined and used to
reorganize the human factors database associated with military aviation accidents. The first
model was the four stage information processing model of Wickens and Flach. The second
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