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A second theme related to this figure is that all the information displayed in the figure (whether it is “owned” by a stakeholder, or environmental information that can be obtained from a variety of sources), are required to support either: (a) identifying the need for replanning; (b) identifying new flight replanning goals and constraints; or (c) developing plans of actions that simultaneously satisfy all identified goals and constraints. Since part of the replanning process involves resolving conflicts among goals and constraints of various stakeholders, real time collaborative resolution requires that all stakeholders possess the same information. This follows from one of the fundamental premises of CDM, that is, in order to make collaborative decisions, decision makers must share mental models of the situation and solution space. This is best supported by not only having the same information, but also by having it in common formats and having aids that facilitate reference to a phenomenon or event (e.g., the ability to point to a weather system on a graphical map).
For the flight deck, this shared information serves a second purpose; it provides pilots with situation awareness that, even if they don’t play a major role in replanning decision making, allows them to anticipate changes and thus manage their workload and overall mission more effectively. In a Free Flight environment, this has potentially enormous benefits in avoiding time critical maneuvers. In the ASO element of AATT, for example, a major goal of the overall Free Flight concept is to provide for more efficient operations while improving safety. One instantiation of improving safety has been described as a three-tiered approach to avoiding hazards. Between strategic planning (1st tier) and tactical hazard avoidance (2nd tier), we should be able to virtually eliminate the occurrence of a time critical warning (3rd tier) such as a Ground Prox or TCAS alert, which is the final line of defense. One of the keys to using strategic planning as a means to reduce the frequency of tactical hazard avoidance and time critical events is providing pilots with the ability to anticipate situations, resulting in their being able to avoid them completely or deal with them more effectively when they do occur.
5.3 Flight Deck Human-Automation Function Allocation
The analysis does not touch on the issue of how the proposed airborne flight replanning functions are then allocated between flight deck automation and the flight crew. A human-centered design philosophy (e.g., see Billings, 1991; Palmer, Rogers, Press, Latorella & Abbott, 1995) suggests that pilots should be involved and informed in decisions and functions that are flight-critical. This would suggest that making the airborne flight replanning function highly automated is ill-advised. On the other hand, because of the computation-intensive, real-time nature of resolving, or collaborating on resolution of, multiple, dynamic flight path constraints with a fuel- or time-, or cost-optimized solution, a high degree of automation is indicated. This raises the increasingly frequent dilemma of devising a useful way to intertwine human and automation capabilities in a way that keeps pilots involved and informed, yet fully exploits automated capabilities. One class of solution that has considerable empirical support is to use automation to filter and chunk information and suggest alternate solutions with benefit/risk and probability information, but allow pilots to make final decisions. A system which allows pilots to input information because of the inherent supperiority humans have in pattern-matching and relating previous experience to the conditions at hand. Such systems are referred to as mixed-initiative systems, and they provide for the input of data and information by either humans or automated systems at various stages of processing, allowing automation to “crunch” on more complete data than it might be capable of generating on its own. These kinds of issues will become paramount as we work out the details of what promises (or threatens) to be a very complex, dynamic airborne function.
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