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Total Drag
AirspeedMinimumDragTotal DragInduced DragForm Drag
Figure 4-8. Drag versus speed.
Stall
CLCLMAXCDL/DL/DMAX181614121086420.2000.1800.1600.1400.1200.1000.0800.0600.0400.02000Coefficient of drag (
CD)Lift/dragCritical Angle of attack0°2°4°6°8°10°12°14°16°18°20°22°CL1.81.61.41.21.00.80.60.40.20
Figure 4-9. Lift coefficients at various angles of attack.Lift/Drag Ratio
Drag is the price paid to obtain lift. The lift to drag ratio (L/D) is the amount of lift generated by a wing or airfoil compared to its drag. A ratio of L/D indicates airfoil efficiency. Aircraft with higher L/D ratios are more efficient than those with lower L/D ratios. In unaccelerated flight with the lift and drag data steady, the proportions of the CL and coefficient of drag (CD) can be calculated for specific AOA. [Figure 4-9]
The L/D ratio is determined by dividing the CL by the CD, which is the same as dividing the lift equation by the drag equation. All terms except coefficients cancel out.
L = Lift in pounds
D = Drag
Where L is the lift force in pounds, CL is the lift coefficient, ρ is density expressed in slugs per cubic feet, V is velocity in feet per second, q is dynamic pressure per square feet, and S is the wing area in square feet.
CD= Ratio of drag pressure to dynamic pressure. Typically at low angles of attack, the drag coefficient is low and small changes in angle of attack create only slight changes in the drag coefficient. At high angles of attack, small changes in the angle of attack cause significant changes in drag.
L = CL . ρ . V2 . S
2
D = CD . ρ . V2 . S
2
The above formulas represent the coefficient of lift (CL) and the coefficient of drag (CD) respectively. The shape of an airfoil and other life producing devices (i.e., flaps) effect the production of lift and alter with changes in the AOA. The lift/drag ratio is used to express the relation between lift and drag and is determined by dividing the lift coefficient by the drag coefficient, CL/CD.
Notice in Figure 4-9 that the lift curve (red) reaches its maximum for this particular wing section at 20° AOA, and then rapidly decreases. 15° AOA is therefore the stalling angle. The drag curve (yellow) increases very rapidly from 14° AOA and completely overcomes the lift curve at 21° AOA. The lift/drag ratio (green) reaches its maximum at 6° AOA, meaning that at this angle, the most lift is obtained for the least amount of drag.
Note that the maximum lift/drag ratio (L/DMAX) occurs at one specific CL and AOA. If the aircraft is operated in steady flight at L/DMAX, the total drag is at a minimum. Any AOA lower or higher than that for L/DMAX reduces the L/D and
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consequently increases the total drag for a given aircraft’s lift. Figure 4-8 depicts the L/DMAX by the lowest portion of the orange line labeled “total drag.” The configuration of an aircraft has a great effect on the L/D.
Weight
Gravity is the pulling force that tends to draw all bodies to the center of the earth. The CG may be considered as a point at which all the weight of the aircraft is concentrated. If the aircraft were supported at its exact CG, it would balance in any attitude. It will be noted that CG is of major importance in an aircraft, for its position has a great bearing upon stability.
The location of the CG is determined by the general design of each particular aircraft. The designers determine how far the center of pressure (CP) will travel. They then fix the CG forward of the center of pressure for the corresponding flight speed in order to provide an adequate restoring moment to retain flight equilibrium.
Weight has a definite relationship to lift. This relationship is simple, but important in understanding the aerodynamics of flying. Lift is the upward force on the wing acting perpendicular to the relative wind. Lift is required to counteract the aircraft’s weight (which is caused by the force of gravity acting on the mass of the aircraft). This weight (gravity) force acts downward through the airplane’s CG. In stabilized level flight, when the lift force is equal to the weight force, the aircraft is in a state of equilibrium and neither gains nor loses altitude. If lift becomes less than weight, the aircraft loses altitude. When lift is greater than weight, the aircraft gains altitude.
Lift
The pilot can control the lift. Any time the control yoke or stick is moved fore or aft, the AOA is changed. As the AOA increases, lift increases (all other factors being equal). When the aircraft reaches the maximum AOA, lift begins to diminish rapidly. This is the stalling AOA, known as CL-MAX critical AOA. Examine Figure 4-9, noting how the CL increases until the critical AOA is reached, then decreases rapidly with any further increase in the AOA.
Before proceeding further with the topic of lift and how it can be controlled, velocity must be interjected. The shape of the wing or rotor cannot be effective unless it continually keeps “attacking” new air. If an aircraft is to keep flying, the lift-producing airfoil must keep moving. In a helicopter or gyro-plane this is accomplished by the rotation of the rotor blades. For other types of aircraft such as airplanes, weight-shift control, or gliders, air must be moving across the lifting surface. This is accomplished by the forward speed of the aircraft. Lift is proportional to the square of the aircraft’s velocity. For example, an airplane traveling at 200 knots has four times the lift as the same airplane traveling at 100 knots, if the AOA and other factors remain constant.
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Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge飞行员航空知识手册(45)
