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One way the brain deals with all this information is to let many of the habitual and routine things go unnoticed. For example, a pilot who uses the rudder when entering a turn is usually unaware of pressing the pedal, even though it involves moving a leg, exerting pressure on the pedal, etc. The human unconscious takes charge, leaving conscious thought processes free to deal with issues that are not habitual.
Since information processing theorists approach learning primarily through a study of memory, this learning concept is revisited during the discussion of memory.Constructivism
A derivative of cognitive theory, constructivism is a philosophy of learning that can be traced to the eighteenth century. This theory holds that learners do not acquire knowledge and skills passively but actively build or construct them based on their experiences. As implied by its name, constructivism emphasizes the constructing or building that goes on in a learner’s mind when he or she learns. Therefore, it creates a learner-centered learning environment in which learners assume responsibility for their own learning.
According to constructivism, humans construct a unique mental image by combining preexisting information with the information received from sense organs. Learning is the result of the learner matching new information against this preexisting information and integrating it into meaningful connections. In constructivist thinking, learners are given more latitude to become effective problem solvers, identifying and evaluating problems, as well as deciphering ways in which to transfer their learning to these problems, all of which foster critical thinking skills. While the student is at the center of the learning process, an experienced teacher is necessary to guide them through the information jungle. Constructivism techniques are good for some types of learning, some situations, and some learners, but not all. This school of thought also encourages teaching students how to use what are known as the higher order thinking skills (HOTS) from Bloom’s Taxonomy and training based on problems or scenarios.
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23456ComprehensionApplicationAnalysisSynthesisEvaluationKnowledgeSketchApplySolveDrawShowPaintOrganizeGeneralizeDramatizePreparProduceChooseExplainDefendDistinguishSummarizeInterrelateInterpretExtendMatchRestateParaphraseRewriteGive exampleExpressIllustrateConstructProducePlanCreateInventOrganizeComposeOriginateHypothesizeDevelopDesignCombineDifferentiateSubivideInferSurveySelectPrioritizeCompareAnalyzeClassifyPoint outDistinquishCategorizeRecognizeIdentifyLocateReciteStateLabelSelectListNameDefineDescribeMemerizeConsiderCritiqueRecommnendSumarizeAppraiseCompareJudgeRelateWeightCriticizeSupportEvaluateHypothesisFormulationBookPlayExperimentAlternative ActionStandard comparedStandard establishedDiscussionAssesmentConclusionSelf-evaluationRecomendationValuingCourt TrialSurveyArticleInventionReportSet of rulesSet of standardsGameSongMachineReportSyllogism broke downGraphSurveyQuestionnaireArgumentParts of PropagandaWord definedStatement identifiedConclusionCheckedSpeechPhotographDiagramOne statementRecordingDramaCartoonStoryNewspapersMagazine articlesTelevision showsRadioText readingsFilmsVideosPlaysFilmstripsEventsPeopleRecordingsAnalogyOnlineCompareSummaryModelConclusionImplication based on ideaCasual relationsSculptureJewelryPoetryListDramaPaintingMapProjectForecastDiagramIllustrationFollowing an outlineSolutionQuestion BLOOM’S TAXONOMY - LEARNING IN ACTION
Figure 2-4. Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain.Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)
The constructivist theory of learning explains and supports the learning of HOTS, which is commonly called aeronautical decision-making (ADM) in aviation. HOTS lie in the last three categories on Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning: analysis, synthesis, and evaluation skills. Teaching the higher level thinking skills which are essential to judgment, decision-making, and critical thinking is important to aviation because a common thread in aviation accidents is the absence of higher order thinking skills (see Appendix F).
HOTS are taught like other cognitive skills, from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract. To teach HOTS effectively involves strategies and methods that include (1) using problem-based learning (PBL) instruction, (2) authentic problems, (3) real world problems, (4) student-centered learning, (5) active learning, (6) cooperative learning, and (7) customized instruction to meet the individual learner’s needs. These strategies engage the learner in some form of mental activity, have the learner examine that mental activity
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Sight 75%
Hearing 13%Touch 6%Smell 3%Taste 3%
Figure 2-5. Most learning occurs through sight, but the combination of sight and hearing accounts for about 88 percent of all perception.
and select the best solution, and challenge the learner to explore other ways to accomplish the task or the problem.
It must be remembered that critical thinking skills should be taught in the context of subject matter. Learners progress from simple to complex; therefore, they need some information before they can think about a subject beyond rote learning. For example, knowing that compliance with the weight-and-balance limits of any aircraft is critical to flight safety will not help an aviation student interpret weight-and-balance charts unless he or she knows something about how center of gravity interacts with weight and balance.
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Aviation Instructor’s Handbook上(19)
