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11.8.31 The first group includes pseudo-isochromatic plates (PIP) such as those designed by Ishihara,
Stilling-Velhagen, Dvorine, Boström & Kugelberg, and Hardy, Rand and Rittler. The Ishihara plates11 or
variations of these are widely available and have gained general acceptance. For accurate work these plates
should be viewed in daylight (but not in sunshine) or with a special light source — International Commission on
Illumination (CIE) illuminant “C” or “D65”. It should be noted that the American Optical Hardy-Rand-Rittler
plates are not very useful for detecting congenital colour vision defects but are excellent for detecting acquired
defects.
11.8.32 There are different criteria for “pass” and “fail” in each of the different series of test plates so it is
important to adhere strictly to the test guidelines for each series.
11.8.33 The plates are placed in front of the applicant at normal reading distance (approximately 50 cm, or
20 in). The applicant should wear spectacles if these are normally used for reading at this distance, and his
response to each coloured plate should be given without hesitation. Tinted lenses must not be used, and the
use of “colour correcting” contact lenses is not allowed. A second attempt may be allowed if the examiner
suspects carelessness or lack of concentration. Loose plates are preferred to books of plates because the
plates can be rearranged so as to prevent the applicant from learning the sequence by heart. Care must be
taken to avoid touching the surface of the colour plates, and when not in use they should be kept in the dark to
avoid fading of the colours.
11 After Shinobu Ishihara, Japanese ophthalmologist (1879-1963)
Part III. Medical Assessment
Chapter 11. Ophthalmology III-11-53
11.8.34 A problem with colour plates is that they detect very mild colour vision defects which might not be
significant in the aviation environment. In other words, they are rather too discriminating.
11.8.35 Variations of the pseudo-isochromatic plates are tests using a series of coloured discs which must
be arranged in correct sequence. The simplest of these is the Farnsworth D-15 test. This is supplied with forms
on which the applicant’s score is recorded and which indicate the type of colour vision defect. A more complex
test is the Farnsworth-Munsell 100 hue test which consists of four trays containing a total of 85 removable
reference caps. The colour caps have incremental hue variation on one side and are numbered on the reverse.
Colour vision anomalies are detected by the ability of the subject to place the colour caps in hue order. A score
sheet yields numerical and graphical results.
11.8.36 For applicants who fail the colour plate tests, colour lanterns can be used to screen for the more
serious red-green colour deficiencies. Several different lanterns have been used by Contracting States, but
there is no consensus on any particular one as a universal standard. Some of the lanterns which have been
used and are still used include the Spectrolux lantern, the Beyne lantern, the Eldridge-Green lantern, the
Farnsworth lantern, the Giles-Archer lantern, the Holmes-Wright lantern, the Royal Canadian Air Force lantern,
and the Optec 900 lantern. These lanterns vary in their complexity and price, but none is clearly to be preferred
and several are no longer available for purchase.
11.8.37 Following a request from ICAO to several Contracting States with highly developed aeromedical
facilities detailed studies have been carried out in recent years to determine the importance of colour
perception and to what extent deficient colour perception can be allowed without affecting aviation safety.
Vision testing software programmes have been developed for use on personal computers and on more
sophisticated equipment and such programmes are designed to test colour vision and other visual functions. It
is likely that in the next few years some of the traditional tests of colour vision will be replaced with more modern
equipment.
11.8.38 Anomaloscopes are instruments which utilize a method of mixing light of two wavelengths so as to
match a given hue. In the Nagel anomaloscope12 one half of the screen can be adjusted by varying the
proportions of red and green light so as to match the other yellow half of the screen. Dichromats accept all
red-green mixtures if the yellow brightness is properly adjusted. Anomalous trichromats accept only abnormal
mixtures; the deuteranomalous use more green and the protanomalous more red. Anomaloscopes give both
qualitative and quantitative assessment of the colour vision deficiency. These instruments are difficult to use,
expensive, and not generally available but may be found in major clinics and research centres.
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Manual of Civil Aviation Medicine 2(64)
